In the book “The Problems of Philosophy” Bertrand Russell attempts to advance an epistemological theory on truths. Through an analytical method, Russell focuses on making distinction judgments about reality. The author discusses the knowledge humans have of their physical world and how they perceive and possess it. Through the concept of sense-datum, Russell explains that it is the sensory interpretation of a person that gives meaning to an object. It is, therefore, through this empirical knowledge, that one can use to interpret and understand their experiences in the world. Russell's theory is the opposite of idealism that argues that anything that exists must first exist mentally 1 . In this philosophy, Russell defends the reality of universals and particulars with the latter being the physical objects while the former being qualities such as size and depth of colour. Russell suggests that one can have knowledge by familiarity and advances a distinction between knowledge directly gained through experience and that gained by having someone explain the same subject matter to them. Russell also supports human inclination to rely on intuition, a position which he hinges on facts, suggestions and complexes. However, Russell contradicts his earlier views by agreeing with Platonic ideals that proposes that it is possible to understand the universe without having prior acquaintance with it 2 . Last, the author gives the reader an insight into the past principles using his arguments as a base.
In this book, Russell uses the subject of knowledge to provoke constructive debate on the problems that define philosophy. With this foundation, Russell attempts to establish a distinction between appearance and reality. Appearance is dependent on the perception of the objects while what an object is, determines the reality 3 . For example, a painter would want to know what an object seems to be while Russell would be interested to know the actual object in entirety. Russell labours to explain to the reader how perception, as explained by the principle of epistemology, would allow a person to have holistic knowledge about an object 4 . From the sense-datum principle, Russell implies that he has enough knowledge of the physical object. Through his table example, Russell implies that one can gain more knowledge through seeing and interacting with a physical object than from listening to an explanation from another person 5 . Russell's theory departs from idealism which provides that if one has to know an object, then it must first exist mentally. Idealism inclines more towards reality than perception, and it provides that knowledge of physical objects is derivative and conditionally real 6 . Human intuition thus plays a considerable role during the process of understanding an object.
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Russell’s argument is partly admissible in that when one familiarizes with an object, they can better understand it than when they rely on secondary information. Nevertheless, Russell fails to address the issue of scepticism about the physical world that can lead one onto the path of mind-independent reality 7 . For instance, doubt can hinder one from fully understanding the object in question, especially when it is entirely new for them. This is where an explanation from another more informed person can help them discern the object in a better way. It is apposite to say that both the appearance and reality can complement each other during the process of knowledge generation of physical objects. Indeed, how an object appears is not necessarily how it really is since it could be in some other discordant form but having the same semblance with the first perception 8 . For example, one may know little about how a certain thing is in the physical world, thus failing to match that prior knowledge with the actual appearance of the object. Priori propositions, as defined by Kant, are independent of earlier experience, and they seem to oppose Russell’s distinction between reality and appearance 9 . A prior acquaintance does not describe reality since the uniqueness of an object to one person is fixed partly determined by their immediate perception of the object 10 . Immediate knowledge can trigger a change in experience which negates past experiences.
Sense-datum the pillar which supports Russell's argument cannot fully define the knowledge that people have on objects in the external world. This incapacity also affects how one perceives an object for the first time, for example, the wooden table. The theory is complicated further by its failure to recognize the dissimilarity between sense-data and what a person would call a wooden table. This is because one would conclude that an object is a wooden table through inference. Hence, physical objects are not directly known 11 . The knowledge of the actual thing which one can call a table is not universal. In the physical world, objects have only their true shapes and not the varied appearances that different people can have due to their sense perception. The state of other people minds cannot be openly known but can only be known through introspection.
Through the concept of sense-datum, Russell insinuates that a person gives meaning to a physical object through sensory interpretation. However, scepticism triggered by past experiences can affect how a person perceives an object. Appearance is subjective since it depends on how an individual perceives an object. Russell's theory differs with that of idealism with the latter advancing that if one has to have knowledge about an object, then it must first exist in his mind. In his book, Russell fails to address the issue of scepticism that exists in the minds of humans about physical objects. For a person to understand an object, they must consistently interact with it.
Bibliography
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Lyons, Jack. 2016. "Epistemological Problems Of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia Of Philosophy)". Plato.Stanford.Edu . plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-episprob/ .
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Russell, Bertrand. 1912. "Bertrand Russell, THE PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY, 1912". Wmcarey.Edu . www.wmcarey.edu/crockett/russell/toc.htm.
