Ecological studies suggest that the restoration or the introduction of wolfs into areas with large numbers of elks have led to the decrease in the size of elk groups as well as their general size. Elks respond to predation by wolfs in various ways. It has been reported that the reduction of elk group sizes has been as a result of the increased predation by wolfs over the years. In places such as Yellowstone, in the olden days, elks used to be spotted in groups of about two hundred to three hundred in number. Today, most elk groups consist of just about fifteen or even ten elks. In some regions, elk groups can no longer be seen due to increased wolf predation. It is believed that the decrease in elk groups is a strategy of the elks of evading predation or reducing the risk of being predated by wolfs. The overall effects of wolf predation on elk group sizes and population can be summarized as effects on their abundance, distribution, group sizes, and elk vigilance. This paper aims to discuss some of the effects of wolf predation on elk group sizes.
In the early 1990s, the wolf population in places such as the Yellowstone region was considerably low while the number of the elks, as well as that of elk groups, was very high. The number of wolfs has increased rapidly since the 1990s up to date. Concurrently, the elk population, as well as the size of elk groups, has significantly reduced ( White et al. 2012) . While other factors such as hunting have also led to the reduction in elk group size and their overall population, the wolf disaster stands as the most threatening factor in the decrease in elk population and group sizes. Other elk species have also been reported to be extinct due to increased predation and killings. Many studies have been conducted by biologists and other scientists on this observation. Some places where elks inhabited initially today have no single elk. Elk migration from various areas has been noted to have resulted from the increased number of wolfs in the areas.
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Wolf Predation
Reports suggest that by 1995, there were only a few wolfs in the Yellowstone Park while there were over fifteen thousand elks in that park. Today, the numbers of the elks have greatly decreased, and the number of wolfs has increased. Wolfs usually hunt in packs of about six to ten wolfs. The hunting packs consist of smaller wolfs and the female ones. This is because the smaller ones as well as the females are lighter and can run faster while the male ones are larger in size and heavier. One elk can serve a whole park for one dinner. Today, in the Yellowstone Park alone, more than two thousand elks get eaten annually, according to the ecological reports. Wolfs in the whole of Yellowstone area eat up to twelve thousand elks every year. This suggests that the number one predator of elks are the wolfs. Wolfs also prey on other animals other than elks. Ecological reports, however, indicate that elks are the primary prey of wolfs. According to the statistics on wolf predation on elks provided by a scientific report, one wolf eats about two elks in just one month. This translates to about twenty-four elks in a year or more. This suggests that about a hundred wolfs are able to take down over two thousand elks in a year.
Overall Effects of Wolf Predation on Elks
The increased wolf predation on the elks has had various effects on wolf population, group sizes and behavior ( MacNulty et al. 2011) . The population has grown smaller and smaller in most places. Elk populations and groups have totally vanished from certain places. The most astonishing feature of elks as a result of wolf predation is the decrease in their group sizes. In the 1990s, elks were seen in groups of about two hundred to three hundred animals in various places. Today, elks are seen in groups of just ten to twenty of them. Many studies and investigation into the matter have been carried out by many scientists. This can also be described as a major behavioral change in the elk populations. The increased predation by the wolfs has also made the elks develop specific behavioral responses in order to avoid predation. For instance, the elks have been observed to move towards steeper areas and cliffs in order to evade wolfs.
Elks are no longer in abundance while at the same time, their population and groups are sparsely distributed. Today, elks have been noticed to move continuously from one place to another. All these have been associated with wolf involvement. The wolfs have decreased the Elks' overall population and made their distribution in various areas quite low. They constantly move around from points to points in an attempt to evade wolfs. The animals have also become more vigilant and are able to notice predators from far distances. Other predators such as human hunters have also found it harder hunting for the elks.
Effect of Predation on the Elk Group Size
The increased wolf predation on elks over the years has forced the elks to come up with new ecological adaptations or ways of managing their situation. In the 1990s, elks moved around in groups of about three hundred elks. Today, it is close to impossible to see a group of twenty elks grazing together ( Proffitt et al. 2009) . Studies suggest that this phenomenon does not just present itself because the overall numbers of elks have decreased. The small group sizes is an adaptation feature of the elks to their hostile environment. It has been found that wolfs and other predators find it difficult to capture elks while in small groups. Also, it is not easy for wolfs and other predators to come across elks when they exist in smaller groups. Moving around in large groups makes elks more vulnerable to predation, especially by wolfs.
It is always much easier for predators, hunters or wolfs, to capture an elk when there is plenty to choose from. A hunter is more likely miss when there are fewer elks grazing or moving around together. The larger group makes it easier for predators to choose and capture their prey. Elks seem to have come up with this kind of a strategy to in order to keep away from predators. While in small groups, it easier to notice predators from far distances and possibly find ways of retaliation or evading the predators.
Wolf predation has contributed to the small group sizes of elks in two ways. Through continuous predation elk groups and the overall elk population has reduced. At the same time, the elks themselves have developed the habit of existing in smaller groups in order to avoid predation, as a result of increased predation by wolfs ( Proffitt et al. 2009) . In the first case, it is clear that the group sizes and the overall elk population had to reduce because of increased predation by wolfs. Even if the phenomenon of the elk group was never an adaptation by the elks to avoid predation, the sizes would still become smaller because of the increased predation by wolfs. The second case, however, explains why the groups have become quite small. If it were not a strategy or an adaptation feature, the group numbers would have at least reduced from three hundred to about one hundred. The elks have known that their main enemy or threat is the wolf. Staying in smaller groups makes it more difficult for wolfs to find them or capture them. Staying in small groups also makes them more vigilant so that they can notice or see wolfs from far away distances and avoid being killed.
This feature has in fact led to a decrease in wolf predation in recent years. Fewer numbers of elks have been killed by wolfs in the recent years as compared to the 2000s. At the same time, other predators such as hunters have also found it quite frustrating, landing an elk due to this adaptation feature by the groups. Some hunting spots or regions seem to have no more of the animals. The animals have moved away to other places due to the fear of being killed by wolfs in such areas ( Fortin & Fortin, 2009) .
The small groups contribute a lot in terms of safety and survival of the elks. Concurrently, groups with very low numbers are also more vulnerable to predation by wolfs. Elks in groups of say, four or three, stand no chance of retaliation against hunters or predation such as wolfs. At the same time, it is easier for wolfs to capture elks in groups of three individuals. The wolf can focus easily on one or two of such elks and capture them as quick as possible. Therefore, as much as the small group strategy is beneficial to the elks, this feature may also present as a vulnerability feature when the groups have very low numbers.
A small number of elks in a group makes it easier to evade wolfs. It becomes easier to evacuate due to fewer numbers in that other elks are not blocking the way. Wolfs look for elks in the plains, in the grazing fields. Elks tend to run towards steeper areas while evading wolfs. This is not easily achieved while in large groups. Small numbers can easily get onto the steep areas and stay out of reach of wolfs. In small numbers, it becomes much easier to run using path sinuosity without other elks blocking the way. The reduced group size has helped the elks evade predation in many ways. In a situation where there are many items to choose from, many of those items can be taken even in one instance. In the case of elks, many of them in one area at the same time provide wolf packs with the opportunity to capture as many as possible at one go. This would then lead a dramatic decrease in the overall and group size of the elks. Staying in small groups reduces the chance of such occurrences ( Gower et al. 2008) .
According to the discussion, the group sizes, as well as the overall number of elks in various regions, have decreased since the 1990s. The decrease in the size of the elks has been majorly contributed to by wolf predation. Elks are the primary prey of wolfs, and a large number of elks is killed by wolfs every year. The increased predation on elks by the wolfs has led to dramatic changes in sizes of elk groups. The reduced elk group sizes help the elks to evade predation by wolfs in various ways. While in small groups, vigilance is enhanced making it possible to notice and escape predators, especially wolfs. Small group sizes also make it difficult for wolfs to find the elks.
References
Fortin, D., & Fortin, M. E. (2009). Group-size-dependent association between food profitability, distribution of free-ranging bison and predation risk. Animal Behaviour , 78 (4), 887-892.
Gower, C. N., Garrott, R. A., White, P. J., Cherry, S., & Yoccoz, N. G. (2008). Elk group size and wolf predation: a flexible strategy when faced with variable risk. Terrestrial Ecology , 3 , 401-422.
MacNulty, D. R., Smith, D. W., Mech, L. D., Vucetich, J. A., & Packer, C. (2011). Nonlinear impacts of group size on the success of wolves hunting elk. Behavioral Ecology , 23 (1), 75-82.
Proffitt, K. M., Grigg, J. L., Hamlin, K. L., & Garrott, R. A. (2009). Contrasting impacts of wolves and human hunters on elk behavioral responses to predation risk. Journal of Wildlife Management , 73 (3), 345-356.
White, P. J., Proffitt, K. M., & Lemke, T. O. (2012). Changes in elk group sizes and distribution after wolf restoration. The American Midland Naturalist , 167 (1), 174-187.
