The conventional family form is undergoing drastic changes in the United States an envisaged by various scholars of the past the present centuries ( Hetherington, Aratesh & NICHD, 1988 ). As a result, a considerable proportion of the children in the country live in the form of family that is different from the conventional two-parent family (Ibid.). Statistical data indicates that up to 60% of all children in the country are raised in a single parent family (Krein & Beller, 1988). Reasons for this development are wide-ranging but can be attributed to factors that include marital disruptions as well as increases in wedlock childbearing (Bumpass & Sweet, 1989). The increasing phenomenon of single parenthood has brought about a lot of scholarly interest not only on the causes but also the relationship with race, gender, and class. Many studies support the hypothesis that children raised under single parents (i.e., away from the traditional father-mother family unit) often end up underperforming in their studies, and picking up deviant behavior (Antecol & Bedard, 2007).
Hetherington, Aratesh & NICHD (1988) however reiterate that despite these observations reflecting a global trend, they are very misleading regarding representing the differences in existence among the diverse ethnic and racial groups that comprise a society. Some racial groups face the problem of single parenthood more acutely compared to others. The same also applies to different socio-economic classes, and gender, with today's female playing the role of sole breadwinner (Hooks, 2000). The aim of this research paper, therefore, is to highlight the causes of single parenthood, and consider whether it is more prevalent among particular gender, class or race, before discussing some of the effects to children raised by a single parent. The paper will argue that women of color, especially Black American women face the highest rates of single parenting, and their gender, as well as the socioeconomic class, have significant implications not only in their situation as single parents but also in how they raise their children with regards to adjustment to society.
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What Causes Single Parenthood
The causes of single parenthood are as varied as the number of ethnic groups in the country, and it is a worldwide occurrence ( Heine, 2016 ). Furthermore, studies do indicate that cases of single mothers were rising and that their plight was more complicated compared to other women. Unlike other women, single mothers often suffer higher risks of poverty, unemployment, having to take part-time jobs due to professional versus family life demands, have poorer mental and physical health with, and also find it hard to build lasting relationships (Heine, 2016). However, the causes of single parenthood are not as evident as commonly perceived. For example, from the perspective of the middle class, cases of poor women having children out of wedlock and with no tertiary education of a good job illustrate a woman who is a victim of circumstance ( Tomás, 2012 ). This is nonetheless far from the truth, as in some instances such women have children as a way of showing ones worth, and they firmly believe that the real tragedy is when a woman misses the opportunity to have children ( Tomás, 2012 ).
Gender
Causes of single parenthood are thus a result of a multitude of factors at play, although there are generally accepted preconditions. Gender is one element, whereby there still exists a prevailing patriarchal system where the role of mothering is primarily considered to be a vital role for the woman (Heine, 2016), or contemporary socioeconomic issues ( Tomás, 2012: Meier et al., 2016 ). One theory is social and advances the line of thought that single parenthood is on the rise as a result of the abandonment of the conservative traditions of the past (Heine, 2016). In this model, the increase of individualism in today's society reflects a growth of selfishness, with the collapse of beliefs in the institution of marriage, the family, and religion (Ibid.).
According to Heine (2016), such theories are grounded in the traditional view of gender roles, where the epitome of being a woman is defined by motherhood, rather than in being an individual. However, due to various social factors, many people in the contemporary society are choosing to involve themselves in relationships that bring self-fulfillment and transcend the limits of social obligations. The right of individuals to leave a link they do not feel fulfilled by has thus been growing; a right that is enshrined in the legislature, giving any partners the legal backing for divorce (Heine, 2016). Despite the growth of inequality between men and women, still, there is the prevalence of what are considered social norms. Under these social norms, mothers are expected to carry the most significant burden of parenthood. Societies also view motherhood as being closely related to "ideas of sacrifice, total dedication, and altruism" (Heine, 2016). Due to such perceptions, most mothers cannot even think of secondary custody of their children after a split up, even when such a choice is best for all parties.
There are perceptions that single parenting is as a result of bad family planning by the concerned parties, especially women ( Tomás, 2012 ). This is a misleading perception because conception mainly occurs as a result of either or both parties desiring to build a long-lasting relationship, or due to reasons such as through using pregnancy as a way of seeking closer intimacy with a partner ( Tomás, 2012 ).
Single parenting is as a result of a myriad of factors, with gender being the most obvious reason why it is leading to high numbers of single mothers. However, class and race are elements that must be considered to understand the dynamics of single parenting in the United States. Of these two, the class issues have been adequately addressed, but this is not so with the race element.
Race
Single parenting is more prevalent amongst specific ethnic communities than in others ( Hetherington, Aratesh & NICHD, 1988 ). U.S. history is replete with illustrations of ethnic and racial groupings that have led to the development of different cultural traditions, as well as various historical circumstances and accessibility to societal resources (Ibid.). If the evolution of family forms comes about as a result of the adaptation process to the prevailing social, economic and cultural circumstances, then it follows that different racial and ethnic groups will have their characteristic pattern of family forms. In the United States from all data, Black American women have the highest rates of single motherhood (66% 2016 figures ), which shows the truth in the above hypothesis that the community suffers as a result of the circumstances they have been raised in ( Tomás, 2012 ).
According to this theory, the thinking of the middle class as indicated by Tomás (2012) makes sense. Many women of color have to deal with the complexities of life at a much younger age compared to other races ( Hetherington, Aratesh & NICHD, 1988 ), and as a result, instances of teen pregnancies and early marriages are not uncommon. Single parenting is also higher among Hispanics (42%) and American Indians (52%) than in Whites (24%), although it is not as prevalent in these communities as it is among Blacks. Asians have the lowest rates of single parenting. This information illustrates the effects of residential ecology on the capacity of the individual, including on their education, financial status and family norms. Financial ecology here refers to the differences in economic and social opportunities based on residential areas ( Hetherington, Aratesh & NICHD, 1988 ), with wealthier individuals having more opportunites.
Class
Class, which is related to the socioeconomic classification of the individual, seems to have an intergenerational impact on the individuals within society as it is the core determinant of the social and financial resources at the disposal of an individual or the family. Women from poor backgrounds indeed stand a higher risk of not getting educated and falling into early pregnancy ( Hetherington, Aratesh & NICHD, 1988). Many of the women from such backgrounds are nonetheless powerless in most of the situations where they end up as single mothers. For example, in many cases, they see the pregnancy as an opportunity for a stronger bond between themselves and their boyfriends, but often, many fathers end up not fulfilling their roles. As stated by Tomas (2012), "mot relationships end before the child is in preschool," which is often as a result of the man being unwilling to work or find a source of income, or the men spending more on themselves than their children.
There additionally seems to be a belief among lower classes, or the poor when it comes to divorce, with many of them choosing to marry only under circumstances where they feel there is no threat to the relationship (Tomás, 2012). Thus, single young mothers do not view their giving birth out of wedlock as a failure, but as an act of courage. This difference in the meaning of marriage between the rich and the poor (Tomás, 2012) may be the reason for the high rates of divorce among the affluent, and high rates of single parenthood among the poor.
Effects of Single Parenting for Children
Single parenthood has different implications for both the child and the parent. As stated earlier in the paper, it regularly has a negative impact on the life of the single parent at the physical, mental and financial levels (Heine, 2016: Meier et al., 2016). Some of these effects included psychological and physical health issues majorly originating from high levels of depression, as well as poverty (Heine, 2016). According to Stevenson et al. (2018), research has shown that family mobility does not have a negative impact on the accomplishments of a child at school unless the child loses both ‘human' and ‘social' capital that comes from living with both parents. When separation occurs either due to residential moves or divorce, then research has shown that risks of adolescent problems increase (Stevenson et al., 2018).
Studies have also shown that children, especially males who live with single parents ended up completing fewer years of school compared to those from two-parent families ( Krein & Beller, 1988 ). Children from single-parent families are also at higher risk of deviant behavior (Stevenson et al., 2018), which is as a result of the lack of discipline and commitment eminent in two-parent families. Such situations are exacerbated by incidences of poverty, which is common among families headed by Black single mothers ( Damaske, Bratter & Frett, 2017 ). Furthermore, the relationship between race, employment, single motherhood, education and work experience make it difficult for some women to come out of poverty even with employment (Ibid.). Overall, single parenthood leads to difficulties since the parent many a time has to multi-task.
Single parenthood is a situation brought about by many differing factors, but what is clear is that it is on the rise. Although national figures show a common issue across the states, the situation is not even from a racial and socioeconomic point of view. Racially, Black Americans have the highest rates of single parenthood, especially single motherhood. The research indicates that this may be as a result of the conditions under which many people from this community face oin terms of social, cultural and economic resources. With inadequate resources, many members grow up in a maladjusted society where single parenthood is the norm. In general nonetheless, there is an increase in single parenting across all races. The role of gender, class, and race cannot be overlooked nevertheless.
References
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Heine, S. (2016). The Rise of Single Motherhood in the EU: Analysis and Propositions. European Policy Brief No. 42, March 2016.
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Stevenson, M. M., Fabricius, W. V., Braver, S. L., & Cookston, J. T. (2018, May 24). Associations Between Parental Relocation Following Separation in Childhood and Maladjustment in Adolescence and Young Adulthood. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/law0000172
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