The traditional basic needs have evolved predictably with time to include such needs as healthcare and education. Education spending per student in various states is affected by the education policies that the states have adopted in tandem with prevailing economic conditions. Notably, education spending is often much higher during booms and normal economic conditions as compared to recessions such as that which occurred in 2008. The Washington Post ranks Boston, MA as the highest spending school district and Jordan, UT as the lowest at $20,502 and $5,708 per student respectively (Brown, 2015).
Nationwide, the top three spending states in terms of education facilitation per student are New York, Alaska and District of Columbia at $19,818, $18,175 and $17,953 per student respectively (Brown, 2015). Utah, Idaho, and Arizona are ranked as the bottom three spenders at $6,555, $6,791 and $7,208 per student respectively (Brown, 2015). There are numerous high school ranking lists, each based on criteria that are significantly different from the other. USA today details an evaluation of states using a combination of factors which include the rate of high school graduation, spending per pupil in public schools, number of bachelors degree graduates, among others (Stebbins & Frohlich, 2018). Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Vermont topped the rankings while Mississippi, New Mexico, and Nevada were the bottom three respectively (Stebbins & Frohlich, 2018).
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Household income is another method of measuring the standard of living of citizens. According to data obtained from Statista.com, New Hampshire topped the list of states in terms of real median household income followed by Connecticut and Alaska at $76,260, $75,923 and $75,723 per household respectively (Statista). Households in West Virginia, Louisiana, and Mississippi have the lowest income levels at $44,354, $42,196 and $41,099 per household respectively (Sauler, 2017).
Similarly, the rate of unemployment denotes the percentage of unemployed population in a state and is also a measure of living standards and economic conditions. A lower rate of unemployment is an indicator of favorable economic conditions and higher standards of living. The reverse is also true. According to data compiled by the United States Department of Labor as of May 2018, Hawaii, North Dakota and Iowa have the lowest unemployment rates at 2.0, 2.6 and 2.7 per cent respectively. At 5.4, 5.6 and 7.2 per cent, unemployment rates are highest in West Virginia, District of Columbia and Alaska respectively (United States Department of Labor) .
Racial equality is determined using different criteria which compare the livelihoods of racially different populations in a state. Data from 247 Wall Street, ranks states in terms of inequality using five factors which include the median household income, the percentage of population of African American descent, unemployment rates as per race, home ownership, as well as the rate of incarceration as per race (Sauler, 2017). Hawaii, Montana, and Idaho emerged as the least racially unequal, while South Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin were the most racially unequal (Sauler, 2017).
Gender equality in states is measured using metrics such as maternal mortality, gender pay gap, gender parity in poverty rates, and life expectancy at birth, among numerous others (Carrig, 2018). Different research initiatives have come up with different lists ranking states in terms gender inequality levels, and while the lists are not exactly similar, their differences are negligible. According to a list compiled by WalletHub, a personal insurance organization, Minnesota, Massachusetts, and Vermont are the states with the least while Louisiana, Arkansas, and Mississippi have the highest gender inequality levels respectively (Carrig, 2018). Another study of the same nature conducted by McKinsey Global Institute produced similar results.
Part Two
Nantucket
One of the biggest Issues facing Nantucket, MA is housing. Notably, the cost of housing is excruciatingly high. This is expected, given that Nantucket is an island with limited space which remains constant despite the growth in population. The population growth of Nantucket over the last decade has mainly been facilitated by higher levels of employment which results to increased immigration. According to data obtained from the Nantucket Atheneum website, as at 2015, over half of the home owners in Nantucket struggled to pay for their homes. 36% of the housing units in Nantucket are constantly inhabited, while 64% are seasonal (Nantucket athenaeum, 2015) .
One of the major barriers to housing is its high cost, whereby at least 90% of the permanent Nantucket residents are unable to afford their own homes (Nantucket athenaeum, 2015) . With a $1.7 million median home price against a $92,800 median family income, it is almost impossible to own a home (Billings et al, 2016), 2015) . This situation has had a negative effect on the ability of the islands resident’s life quality, as well as the ability to attract and retain skilled labor.
Not surprisingly, the housing crisis is not limited to Nantucket alone, but spreads all over Massachusetts, being even more prominent in other areas, such as those in the metro Boston region. A recent report by the Massachusetts Housing Partnership indicates that over the last decade, housing production has decreased against an increasing population and employment (Ziegler, 2017). As of 2017, the report estimates an estimated 44,000 units statewide housing deficit, expected to reach 91,000 units by 2030 if the current housing construction rates remain constant (Ziegler, 2017). Massachusetts also seems to be competing poorly against other metropolitan areas which are seeking similar skilled workers such as Austin, TX and Dallas, TX and Denver, CO, among numerous others, where construction of more affordable housing is taking place at a much higher rate (Ziegler, 2017). Moreover, according to Ziegler (2017), Massachusetts’s rent ranks among the highest among its economic competitors making it difficult for the state to boost employment or sustain current levels.
Various solutions have been proposed and implemented in Nantucket to curb the housing problem. Firstly, the Housing Bank Home Rule Petition 2794 is a law that is geared towards generating funds for affordable housing creation by levying 0.5% of any transfer of real estate property sales worth over $2 million. Other measures include mixed-use district allowance of residential housing, as well as implementing housing reforms that facilitate higher density housing for residential housing.
Worcester
Worcester, MA is a community that has been searching for ways to deal with chronic homelessness, a problem that is closely linked to the high cost of housing in Massachusetts. The Central Massachusetts Housing Alliance (CMHA), Inc. estimates that in order for a worker earning a minimum wage of $11/hour to afford decent housing, they would have to work at least 1.5 permanent jobs. The high cost of housing is prohibitive, leading to frequent loss of homes by families, pushing them into the streets. The latest statistics state the number of homeless people as 1,507.
Various initiatives are being undertaken in order to curb homelessness. The CMHA collaborates with other organizations to ensure that residents do not lose their houses and that when they do, there are shelters that can take them in. The CMHA mainly helps reduce and offer relief to the homeless population through legislation in order to allocate funds for such assistance. Some of the programs that have helped house the homeless include the Massachusetts Rental Voucher Program, Emergency Assistance Family shelter, and services, among others (Central Massachusetts Housing Alliance, Inc.). Homelessness is a severe problem because it strains public services such as health, and strains public resources.
Springfield
The town of Springfield, MA is plagued by a problem that is closely related to the previous two: poverty. While it is not unique in having disparities between the economic conditions of the people residing in different areas of the town, the poverty levels of Springfield’s downtown are significantly pronounced (Browne et al, 2011). This has negatively affected the ability of Springfield to market itself as a destination. The buildings at the Springfield’s downtown are significantly less aesthetically attractive than those at wealthier neighborhoods. This is caused by poor or minimal maintenance carried out by the landlords of such. In turn, the rent charged for the buildings is low hence only poor people live there. However, tenants prefer to move into better housing once they have stabilized financially (Browne et al, 2011).
There are various factors that resulted into the city’s state of housing, most of which are historical. Various controversial projects have been undertaken, eliciting different views and reactions. Developers, including the state and federal government, have been severally accused of racially dividing the Springfield residents while designing the required housing (Browne et al, 2011). To date, there are neighborhoods that are predominantly white, and often more affluent, while there are others that are predominantly African American, often experiencing significant levels of poverty. Market forces have therefore interacted with government policy to result to the prevailing situation (Schartz, 2014) .
One of the solutions that has been attempted in Springfield’s downtown is its conversion and rehabilitation in order to make the houses market rate housing. This measure has been successful in such cities as Jersey cities but comes with numerous challenges. There are also programs that offer incentives to developers who are willing to develop market rate and low income housing that is up to the required standard (Schartz, 2014) .
Part 3: Recommendations
Housing Crisis in Massachusetts
As evident in this discussion, Massachusetts faces a major housing crisis. All the three problems covered in light of the three towns, Nantucket, Worcester, and Springfield are related to the lack of adequate and quality housing. A major policy change that would facilitate the building of affordable housing should be passed, requiring developers to build a percentage all their projects as affordable housing units (say 20%) and offering subsidies and incentives to developer swho focus on affordable housing (Billings et al, 2016). Additionally, a levy should be proposed for the sales of high end housing units and set apart as a fund to develop new affordable housing units. This policy has been applied in various cities and communities whereby it has been successful. Some of the communities experiencing similar challenges include The Hamptons, NY, Aspen, CO, key West, FL, Arlington County, VA, Martha’s Vineyard, MA and Provincetown MA (Billings et al, 2016).
Provincetown, MA mainly experiences a shortage of housing for its seasonal and permanent workforce. To combat the problem, two by-laws have been passed, namely the Change of Use Conversions and the Affordable Housing By-law. The affordable Housing By-law supports the creation of affordable housing units through collaboration between numerous governmental and non-governmental stakeholders, while the Change of Use Conversions stipulates that a percentage (20%) of all residential housing created should be affordable (Billings et al, 2016).
Chilmark is a town on Martha’s Vineyard, MA, whose major housing challenge is that of the all year round workers. Middle Line Road is an initiative that seeks to provide affordable housing for rent providing land for the all-year residents to build their own homes. Building permits are issued based on the level of permanency of the applicants stay. Edgartown, also on Martha’s Vineyard, proposed a fund that proposed that the state should fund affordable housing. Morgan Woods is a residential area which was opened in 2007 as a result, consisting of 81 houses, 60 of which are rental (Billings et al, 2016). The funding bill was worth $5 million (Billings et al, 2016).
Block Island, RI also passed a law that allowed a subsidy worth up to $500,000 for any developers who would build at least 20% of their development projects as affordable homes. This law was passed in 2002 and has been significantly effective since. The town has also focused on its all-year residents, setting aside 60 units of housing with a rent or buys options. However, this has evidently not adequately solved the problem in the area (Billings et al, 2016).
In The Hamptons, NY, a workforce housing trust fund bill has been proposed. It aims at funding affordable housing. $10/square foot for houses over 3000 square feet, taxed upon application and issuance of building permits (Billings et al, 2016). This is geared towards ensuring the organizations undertaking large projects are forced to fund affordable housing. Secondly, a third of the profit from sale of houses is deposited in the affordable housing development fund.
There are also other recommendations that would support the above stated policy. For instance, the city by laws should be amended to create new housing and zoning regulations that support new developments (Hananel, 2014) . The current regulations are not updated enough to sufficiently deal with the challenges that have arisen with time.
The existing houses should be maintained and preserved in order to ensure that residents, especially those who are on the island all year round, remain sustainably housed (Hananel, 2014) . The houses that are constructed should also be meticulously inspected to ensure that they are built to last for posterity (Belsky et al, 2014) .
A demographic review should also be conducted in order to drive decision-making procedures. The islands population should be observed for trends in terms of family structures (Rohe & Lindblad, 2013) . This will, in turn, facilitate the planners in providing suitable houses for each family structure in the proportions to which they are necessary. The government should temporarily step in and regulate the island’s real estate sector. Free market forces have resulted into high cost of housing due to the high demand for the same (Rohe & Lindblad, 2013) . For instance, the sale of expensive real estate assets should be taxed and the resultant funds used in affordable housing projects. This is as evidenced by efforts to provide affordable housing in The Hamptons, NY where similar housing challenges are being experienced (Billings et al, 2016).
Conclusion
To sum it all up, the severity of the housing problem in Massachusetts cannot be overemphasized. Nantucket is only an example of the prevailing crisis, and as Ziegler (2017) shows, the crisis is likely to worsen if drastic measures are not immediately adopted. This crisis has jeopardized the ability of Massachusetts to attract skilled labor, which has a negative impact on the state’s economic growth. It is necessary to develop and implement sound housing policy in order to drive the effect the change that is needed. Notably, solving the housing problem will also assist in tackling other related issues such as poverty and homelessness.
References
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Billings, R., Griffin, M., & Troio, J. (2016). Improving Nantucket Municipal Workforce Housing (Doctoral dissertation, Worcester Polytechnic Institute).
Brown, E. (2015) “The States That Spend The Most (and the Least) on Education, in One Map.” The Washington Post . Washington, DC. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/local/wp/2015/06/02/the-states-that-spend-the-most-and-the-least-on-education-in-one-map/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.e1548ac1b35e
Browne, L. E., Muñoz, A. P., Steiger, A., Walker, R., & Zhao, B. (2011). Housing policy and poverty in Springfield. Federal Reserve Bank of Boston discussion paper, p6, February .
Carrig, D. (2018) “These are the 10 Best and Worst States for Women.” USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/personalfinance/2018/03/06/there-10-best-and-worst-states-women/396283002/
Hananel, R. (2014). Can centralization, decentralization, and welfare go together? The case of Massachusetts Affordable Housing Policy (Ch. 40B). Urban Studies , 51 (12), 2487-2502.
Homelessness in Worcester County. Central Massachusetts Housing Alliance, Inc. http://www.cmhaonline.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=116&Itemid=174
“ Median household income in the United States in 2016, by state (in current U.S. dollars)” Statista.com. https://www.statista.com/statistics/233170/median-household-income-in-the-united-states-by-state/
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Rohe, W. M., & Lindblad, M. (2013). Reexamining the social benefits of homeownership after the housing crisis. Boston: Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University .
Sauler, M, B. (2017) “Black and White Inequality in all 50 States.” 247 Wall Street. https://247wallst.com/special-report/2017/08/18/black-and-white-inequality-in-all-50-states-2/2/
Schwartz, A. F. (2014). Housing policy in the United States . Routledge.
Stebbins, S. & frohlich, T. C., (2018) “Geographic Disparity: States with the Best(and Worst) Schools.” USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/economy/2018/02/08/geographic-disparity-states-best-and-worst-schools/1079181001/
United States Department of Labor (2018). “Local Area Unemployment Statistics.” Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.gov/web/laus/laumstrk.htm
Ziegler, C. (2017) “Housing supply in the Commonwealth.” Center for Housing Data, Massachusetts Housing Partnership. http://www.mhp.net/writable/resources/documents/MHP-Presentation-to-Joint-Cmte-on-Housing-June-20-2017.pdf
