In Book VIII of the Republic, Plato discusses the four types of corrupt societies. Give a description of each of these societies and how the degradation of one leads to the formation of the other.
Aristocracy is the first type of society discussed by Plato whereby the ruler upholds a great deal of good and despite being tempted to pursue material wealth encounters metaphysical contemplation to stop him from doing so. This society degenerates to the Timocracy society whereby the next generations of leaders is composed of less intellectual individuals who are inferior. These are individuals chosen on the basis of simplicity and best suited for combat. The Timocracy later translates to the Oligarchy where the society makes a distinction between poor and rich people whereby the wealthy individuals take up the mantle of leadership. Finally, Plato identifies the Democratic society whereby the poor people are offered an opportunity for advancement despite corruption still being rife.
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In Book I of the Ethics, why does Aristotle argue that political science seems to be the authoritative and master art? Be sure to include a description of how Aristotle ranks sciences in terms of a hierarchy, a discussion of good and ends, and the nature of such a science (i.e. is it a precise science or speculative science?)
Aristotle asserts that since, political science leads to politics which appears to possess the power to determine the sciences which are to be studied in a particular state, the class of the nation`s inhabitants who are to study them and the point to which they should learn. He further alludes that the most highly esteemed of sciences should fall under the categories of strategy, economics and rhetoric. In this sense the goods contribute to a fluctuation of opinion since they are capable of causing harm to individuals owing to the idea that men have previously been undone by the reason emanating from their wealth. Besides, attaining the end for a single individual is worthwhile, though attaining the same for an entire nation could be deemed as godlike.
In Book I of the Ethics, what does Aristotle understand to be the end of all human activity, and with what faculty indicative to man do human beings seek to achieve this end? Be sure to include in your discussion the other faculties of human beings that Aristotle considers, and why these faculties cannot be understood to be the basis for understanding the nature of human happiness.
Aristotle associates possession of virtue to be the end of all human activity. This is indicative of a faculty of a man who many consider not to have been living. It further exhibits itself in the form of a life full of contemplation. Endurance of great sufferings and misfortunes are additional facets towards this end. He further alludes to the idea that the faculties cannot be fully understood to understand the nature of human happiness since it appears to be a platitude and a clear reflection of what is desired. It is an activity of the soul which is in accordance to virtue in which case it can be deemed to be complete.
In Book I of the Ethics, what are the principle ways in which people attempt to achieve happiness, and why do each of the goods fail to provide definitive course for human happiness? Why does Aristotle argue that Virtue must seek the good in action?
First, people regard happiness to be many things. For instance, wealth, honor and pleasure. They also deem it to be health whenever they are ill, and wealthy in the case of the poor. Through such means, people, thereby attempt to attain happiness but fail to provide definitive course for human happiness. Conversely, Virtue must seek the good in action between only then does it attain self-sufficiency which later translates to happiness which is something that is final and also the end of action. For it to become more desirable, the addition of even the least of goods would be sufficient.
In Book II of the Ethics, Aristotle gives a description of the two types of virtue. Give a description of both, how they differ, how they are formed, and give an example of each.
The first type is intellectual virtue which owes its birth and growth to teaching, in which case it requires time and experience in order for it to thrive sufficiently. An example of this is an individual who is born with a high level of intellect who later on manage to retain that in throughout the course of their development. The second virtue is moral virtue emanates from a habit it is also referred to as ethike meaning ethos or habit. One can discern that no single individual moral virtue results from natural occurrences. Since no such thing can conform to a habit which is contrary to its nature. A good example is a stone which is habituated to move downwards in which case no amount of compulsion can cause it to attain an upward movement. The two virtues, therefore, differ in that moral virtue results from habits, whereas intellectual virtue is inborn.
In Book II of the Ethics, Aristotle understands Virtue in relationship to an individual’s character. Describe this relationship. Be sure to include in your discussion a description of why Aristotle believes that men are good in one way, but bad in many. Also be sure to give three examples virtuous behavior.
Since the facets that exist in the soul of an individual appear in three forms namely, passions, states of characters and faculties, virtue is no exception to this according to Aristotle. It bears a significant relationship to character. By passion, he is inferring to aspects such as fear, confidence, appetite, hatred and longing. He further associates character with things of virtue by offering examples of behaviors considered to be virtuous such as, feeling pity, abstaining from pleasures and emulation.
In Book V of the Ethics, Aristotle gives a description of the Just Person and the Lawless Person. Compare and contrast these two individuals in Aristotle’s view. Why does Aristotle believe that all lawful acts are Just acts in a certain respect?
The two differ in that the lawless man and grasping man are deemed to be unjust whereas the just and law-abiding man will appear just. Also, just is what appears to be fair and lawful, whereas, unjust is whatever appears unfair and unlawful. Moreover, all lawful acts of a just person appear to be just, contrary to the lawless person whose acts appear to be unjust. Aristotle believes that all lawful acts are Just acts in a certain respect for the acts laid down by the legislative art are lawful, and each of these can be deemed to be just.
In Book V of the Ethics, Aristotle describes several categories of Justice. Give a description of these categories, and also be sure to describe how each applies to voluntary and involuntary acts where applicable.
One of the categories is that which is exhibited in distributions of honor and money or other things which fall to be divided among those who bear a share in the constitution. The aspects which are voluntary are those which emerge from voluntary transactions, whereas involuntary-voluntary involve sale, purchase and loan for consumption, depositing and also letting. The other category is that which plays a rectifying part in transactions between man and man. In this sense, those which are involuntary involve clandestine acts such as adultery, poisoning, theft and enticement of slaves, and violent acts such as mutilation, robbery with violence, abuse and imprisonment.
In Book I of the Confessions, St. Augustine discusses the presence of God, and the dilemma that comes with seeking God in relationship to the nature of God’s presence. What is it that St. Augustine believes he must do to receive the presence of God?
St Augustine believes that in order to receive His presence, God must restore and expand his soul. He must also, cleanse Augustine from his secret sins. He also holds the perception that he must observe the rules of letters and syllables of those who spoke prior about God`s goodness and avoid neglecting the eternal rules of everlasting salvation. Augustine further alludes to the fact that he can attain this by following all of God`s commandments diligently. Moreover, he has to learn to take pleasure in truth and shun meanness, arrogance and sorrow.
In Question 2 of the Summa Theologica, St. Aquinas discusses Faith as a Science. Explain how he forms this understanding.
The understanding is formed from the perception that Christians or believers already bear God`s affirmation within them. It is through this means that the scriptures are written through divine inspiration from God since the writers already bear the inspiration within them. Aquinas manages to assert this by possessing the ammunition of faith. Moreover, the principles appearing in any form of science are self-evident and reducible to knowledge obtainable in higher sciences. In a similar manner, God`s authority cannot in any way be questioned, and should instead be adopted by approved by means of faith and as indemonstrable knowledge. God`s doctrine of wisdom, therefore, supersedes human comprehension.
In Question 2 of the Summa Theologica, St. Aquinas discusses five proofs for the existence of God. Give a description of one or several of these proofs. Why is there still need for Divine Revelation if the existence of God can be proven? ( This Question can be answered multiple times)
One of the proofs is the argument from metaphysical motion. Based on this perception, it is apparent that one can observe that there are elements which keep changing within the world. This is caused by something else. This external force is what Aquinas believes to be God. A second proof emanates from the argument of efficient causation. This is where it alleged that it is impossible for something to cause itself since this would imply that it existed prior to itself. One understands that God is the controller of such causes. Causes alluded to by Aquinas in this case are those affiliated to dependency relationships. The need for Divine Revelation if the existence of God can be proven is a product of doubt which emanates from scientific explanations offered to support how certain things appear the way they do.
Describe the classical theory of Utilitarianism . What are some potential problems with the application of the theory?
It was developed by 19 th century philosophers and promotes the idea that every human activity can be assessed based on how it impacts of the happiness of an individual. One of the problems is that it would necessitate that individuals violate justice. For instance, if a scenario was such that an innocent man is to be sentenced owing to public perception alluding to his guilt, then justice would not be attained. It also appears to promote punishment of individuals in certain respects such as one who is innocent in order to initiate happiness in others. It is also likely to cause problems since happiness cannot in any way be quantified. Moreover, its impracticality is another problem since the effects of all persons cannot be evaluated.
Describe the Categorical Imperative . Be sure to include a description of how Kant derives the principle from an understanding that Morality is a matter of reason not emotion.
It is an aspect proposed by Kant where he alleges that a person must do whatever necessary regardless of the circumstance. It offers a basis for moral actions and on how to come up with moral judgements. According to Kant, the intrinsic value of individuals is attached to reasoning and not emotion which is an aspect derived from the ideal occurrence of a person`s freedom.
Describe the origins of Aristocratic Morality and Slave Morality in the context of Friedrich Nietzsche. Be sure to include in your discussion how one is a reaction to the other, and how Platonism and Christianity are understood within the context of this moral dichotomy.
Nietzsche alludes to the fact that Aristocratic Morality originates from the noble man. This is one who determines values and attaches honor to various things whereas, slave morality is a consequent of aristocratic morality. It is based on the idea that the slave offers responses depending on what the master requires. In a similar manner, Platonism is derived from Christianity since most of the perceptions were inherently obtained from the religion.
15. How does Nietzsche propose going beyond morality? Be sure to include in your discussion his notion of God, the Ubermensch, and the eternal recurrence.
Nietzsche propose that in order to go beyond morality, individuals have to understand that every normative system performing something in specific similar to what can be associated with morality bears distinctive characteristics. In this sense normative and descriptive components have to be present. In this respect, he views God as divine. Ubermensch further offers meaning to the life of individuals on earth with eternal recurrence alluding to a greater kind of human being who exists beyond morality.
