Unnever, J. D. (2014). A theory of African American offending: A test of core propositions. Race and Justice, 4(2), 98-123.
The journal article is based on research that focuses on 3570 African Americans. It focuses on the offending nature of African Americans and how it relates the extent to which they encounter racial injustices. The two types of racial injustices that the article focuses on are racist stereotypes and racial discrimination. The outcome of the research found out that black people who experience racial discrimination and buy into the stereotypes that they are violent are more likely to engage in offensive acts. Stereotypes blacks show signs of anger, low-self-control, and depression. Also, the data associates racial injustices with the likelihood that African Americans will become dependent on drugs.
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Welch, K. (2007). Black criminal stereotypes and racial profiling. Journal of contemporary criminal justice, 23(3), 276-288.
The article addresses the pervasive nature of stereotyping the black community in the United States. The stereotyping of the black in the American community has had far-reaching consequences that need to be addressed. One of the main problems associated with the stereotyping is continuous profiling by criminal justice practitioners. In many occasions, the blacks have been stereotyped as violent and drug addicts. Such sentiments have been used by various police departments to justify their profiling. The article is, therefore, an implication on the criminal justice system regarding how they have been compelled to join the stereotypic bandwagon.
Dukes, K. N., & Gaither, S. E. (2017). Black racial stereotypes and victim-blaming: Implications for media coverage and criminal proceedings in cases of police violence against racial and ethnic minorities. Journal of Social Issues, 73(4), 789-807.
The article discusses the relationship between the stereotyping of minorities such as blacks and victim-blaming. The tactic has mainly been used in the context of police violence especially in instances where death occurs. The stereotypes of the ethnic and racial minorities, in the context of police violence, have been utilized as a rationale for blaming the victim. Thus, minorities especially African Americans, have been painted in the wrong light even in situations where they were innocent. Stereotypic images such as violence, rape, and aggression have played a critical role in blaming them and exonerating the police for any wrongdoing.
Smiley, C., & Fakunle, D. (2016). From “brute” to “thug:” The demonization and criminalization of unarmed Black male victims in America. Journal of human behavior in the social environment , 26 (3-4), 350-366.
The article begins by drawing the relationship between blackness and criminality. According to the authors, the post-Reconstruction era in America was characterized by stereotypes, myths, and racist ideologies that promoted discrimination. According to the authors, most blacks in the US are described to fit into the definition of a thug. As such, blacks considered persons of interest or suspects have often been dealt with force and brutality. As such, these stereotypes and the aggressive reactions have since contributed to equal and opposite reaction from the blacks. Thus, it could be said that the violence or criminal nature of the black is as a reactionary tactic against the brutality they have faced from the law enforcers.
Burt, C. H., Simons, R. L., & Gibbons, F. X. (2012). Racial discrimination, ethnic-racial socialization, and crime: A micro-sociological model of risk and resilience. American sociological review, 77(4), 648-677.
The authors examine the relationship between racial discrimination and the behaviors of people in the social context. The article explains how racial discrimination has an impact on the routine situations and life chances of a person as they interact in their daily lives. Despite the widespread racism in the US, little attention has been paid to its impact on social behaviors. The central idea in this article is that racial discrimination has a significant role to play in offended. Racial inequality is one of the primary drivers of offending by racial minorities. In providing the context, the authors use a theory known as the strain theory. According to this theory, society places certain pressures on individuals to attain certain aspects even though they do not have the means. Racial inequalities lead to strain on the blacks thereby contributing to their offending.
Najdowski, C. J., Bottoms, B. L., & Goff, P. A. (2015). Stereotype threat and racial differences in citizens’ experiences of police encounters. Law and Human Behavior, 39(5), 463.
The journal article opens by asserting that there is immense evidence demonstrating the presence of harmful consequences emanating from the negative stereotypes about the blacks. The dominant image asserts that black people are not only violent but also prone to crime. The authors believe that these sentiments date back to the 16th century when the European explorers encountered the black men. Whites have held the belief that blacks are aggressive and have a propensity towards violence. Such sentiments have a direct impact on how people relate to the black community. For instance, the police view subconsciously views blacks as a threat. On the contrary, the blacks might try too much to prove them otherwise, thereby ending up justifying the stereotypes.
Sampson, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2005). Neighborhood stigma and the perception of disorder. Focus, 24(1), 7-11.
The journal article joins the bandwagon of other academic materials discussing how the blacks undergo numerous stereotypes in the United States. According to the authors, blacks and other disadvantaged communities are associated with violence, crime, and disorders among others. Research has also demonstrated that blacks and ethnic minorities form the largest percentage of occupants in the jails and incarceration facilities. Thus, it could be concluded that there is a close relationship between stereotyping and the actual performance of crime. Research has shown that stereotypic painting is associated with aspects such as anger, low-self-control, and depression. All these attributes are directly implicated in criminal activities such as violence and aggression among others.
