Worldwide, prisons continue to hold individuals of different religious backgrounds. This is particularly the case owing to the globalization of such issues as migration and crime. Subsequently, the presence of various religious inclinations in a single prison has become common. The integration of religion into a prisoner's life has the potential of assisting in his or her rehabilitation. However, in the same breath, religion has the potential of fueling conflicts and disagreements ( UNODC , 2016 ). While deprivation is a common attribute of prison life, there is a consensus amongst scholars that Muslim prisoners are highly affected ( Angus, 2016 ; Awan, 2013 ) . This is the case when they are prevented from accessing collective prayers, protection of modesty, halal food and spiritual support from qualified Imams. The challenges occasioned by religion are therefore critical in correction facilities and are treated differently in different countries ( Hofmann, 2012 ). Some countries ensure that Muslim prisoners are allowed to practice their religion. This is achieved by employing Imams, making room for collective prayers and offering halal food. In others, prison authorities are least interested in offering these exceptions. Owing to the former, radicalization of Muslims has become a high priority area for policymakers globally ( Angus, 2016 ; Doosje et al., 2016; UNODC , 2016 ; Awan, 2013 ; Hofmann, 2012 ) . The increased terrorist attacks in different cities across the world highlight the dangers posed by the small groups of radicalized and violent individuals. This calls for intensified efforts by governments to understand radicalization in terms of its signs, nodes, processes, operational characteristics and opportunities for de-radicalization. Apart from mosques and learning institutions, prisons have been cited as being key nodes of this challenge ( UNODC , 2016 ; Bossong, 2014 ; Schmid, 2013 ; Dechesne, 2011 ). Thus, an understanding of radicalization and extremist activities in prisons particularly in the context of a biblical worldview is vital in devising strategies to counter and respond to the challenge.
The Radicalization of Prisoners: A Background
Radicalization describes a process in which individuals transform their worldview from a range that is considered normal by the society into one that is extreme ( Schmid, 2013 ). This process takes place over time. In some instances, the radicalized individuals take a step further and get involved in acts of violence. Contrary to the widespread understanding, the persons that undergo this transformation are not solely motivated by their interpretation of Islamic religion. Thus, radicalization is not driven by a single ideology ( Silke & Veldhuis, 2017 ; Hofmann, 2012 ) . Likewise, the phenomenon is not recent. In the past, radicalization was influenced by dissatisfactions with limiting politics and capitalism. It is for these reasons that they joined groups committed to advancing various methods of resisting. Currently, the persons that go through a personal journey of political awareness, political activism and then followed by extremism or violence can be referred to have gone through the process of radicalization ( Doosje et al., 2016) . For instance, the growing concerns about threats of terrorism are primarily based on its manifestation as radical Islam. Radical Islam has been conceptualized as the pursuit of establishing a society that reflects the values perceived to be derived from the original sources of Islam, and as purely as possible, using politico-religious means ( Silke & Veldhuis, 2017 ; UNODC , 2016 ). When viewed from this perspective, radicalization refers to the process through which individuals internalize a militant mindset and a set of beliefs that embrace violent jihad as a means of testing a person’s convictions.
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Several factors are involved in the radicalization of individuals, and particularly in the shaping and development of a militant mindset. The likelihood of a person to become a terrorist is determined by a combination of factors that are unique to the individual. These include the development of a sense of injustice and grievance; globalization; anti-Western stances; inconsistencies in Western standards in global behavior; community disadvantage; personal alienation; and exposure to radical ideas. Radicalization takes place in four distinct stages. These include pre-radicalization, self-identification, indoctrination and lastly, ‘jihadization’ ( Didier & Guild , 2015; Awan, 2013 ; Schmid, 2013 ; Hofmann, 2012 ). While many individuals may be radicalized, only a few of them are involved in such acts as terrorism. Nevertheless, in order to reduce the number of those involved in terrorism and other acts of violence, there is a need to focus on such nodes of radicalization as the prison system.
Individuals do not commit criminal and violent acts in a vacuum. Rather, their past experiences, backgrounds as well as opportunities influence their likelihood of committing such acts. In this context, a person’s institutional and social context influences his or her immediate and subsequent behavior. Prisons do not provide punishment and deterrence only. Instead, they also shape the inmates’ behaviors and attitudes ( Silke & Veldhuis, 2017 ; Bossong, 2014 ). Thus, in order to understand radicalization and extremism in the context of prisons, an understanding of the pains of imprisonment is requisite. This is because these pains play a vital role in shaping the inmates’ vulnerability to radicalization ( Schmid, 2013 ; Dechesne, 2011 ) . These pains include;
Lack of supportive relationships
Imprisonment cuts off an individual from friends and family. This separates the prisoners from their source of day-to-day support causing psychological stress ( Bossong, 2014 ). This is especially the case given the prison's traumatic conditions and the difficult adjustment that the prisoner has to endure. Supportive relationships are vital for an individual's emotional and physical health. They are also crucial in preventing an individual from offending after serving time.
Threats to masculinity and personal identity
Prisons deprive people of sentimental and personal possessions. This is detrimental because individuals use personal items as reminders of their ties to identities and groups as well as personal affiliations. Thus, by getting rid of these items, the prisons strip away the selfhood and autonomy of prisoners ( Bossong, 2014 ). On the other hand, due to the gender-segregated environment, the heterosexual prisoners may experience psychological difficulties. For instance, an environment that is exclusively composed of men is likely to generate anxieties regarding their masculinity. Therefore, in prisons, male prisoners are likely to question their male status. A further risk to the prisoner’s self-image is posed by the lack of opportunity for the female society to identify him as a man.
Lack of autonomy
A prison prevents individuals from controlling their daily routine, replacing this with various imposed regulations and rules as well as bureaucratic controls. Owing to this imposition of control, inmates are likely to exhibit intense hostilities towards prison authorities especially since they don’t approve of such controls. The imposition of arbitrary and harsh discipline coupled with the removal of the inmates’ capacity to make their own decision pose a threat to the prisoners’ sense of self-efficacy and self-image. This is because it challenges their ability to be autonomous.
Violence and insecurity
Imprisoned persons are forced to cohabit with various criminals, a number of whom are dangerous and violent. This results in feelings of insecurity. To counter these feelings, prisoners tend to form groups and establish mechanisms of mutual aid ( Bossong, 2014 ). However, despite this, within this group of prisoners, there exist a considerable number of outlaws that are capable of depriving the average prisoner the sense of security that is common when living with people who are expected to follow the rules that have been put in place by the society. Thus, in a prison environment, violence is likely to be driven by feelings of shame, humiliation, disrespect, and ridicule. Violence is therefore aimed at undoing these feelings.
Rejection and separation from a dominant group and its moral code
One of the principal attributes of imprisonment is the moral and deliberate rejection of a particular prisoner by the free community. This rejection poses a significant threat to the prisoner's conception of self-worth ( Hofmann, 2012 ). To counter this, the prisoner is left with two options. Firstly, the prisoner may accept the validity of the rejection, engaging in acts of self-castigation while reflecting on the broader societal and institutional judgment that this isolation results in. Secondly, the prisoner may blame an external force for his or her circumstances. In pursuit of the latter, the prisoner is likely to reject the society by directing his or her anger to the system and organizations as well as authorities that punished the offender.
‘ Prisonization’ and Its Role in Radicalization
Prisoners are forced to assimilate and habituate to the new environment in a bid to cope with the various pains of imprisonment. This calls for ‘prisonization’ in which case the individual prisoners are assimilated into the larger inmate population coupled with its subcultures. This occurs especially when prisoners adopt the general behavior and customs of the prison community. The prisoners are likely to adopt behaviors that conform to those of other inmates in a bid to obtain status ( Schmid, 2013 ). The differential ability of prisoners to integrate and cope with the prison community is determined by a range of group, individual or institutional attributes. Some of these variables include the prisoners’ mental and physical health; personal relationships; substance dependency; group affiliations and memberships; ability to form new affiliations and relationships; norms, attitudes and belief systems; composition of regimes and group found in prison. Joining an existing group helps a prisoner to gain a sense of affiliation psychologically. Physically, it also aids in obtaining protection. On the other hand, inmates are often organized into primary, informal or natural groups. These groups are based upon the execution of certain kinds of natural functions or common interests.
While some prisoners adjust effectively to the prison environment, others experience difficulties. For instance, vulnerable groups are likely to be distressed by imprisonment. This group is thus less likely to cope with the demands of the depriving and unresponsive prison environment. Vulnerable individuals are likely to adapt to the prison environment by seeking psychological and physical protection through joining new groups coupled with the rejection of the legal system and dominant culture’s negative judgment ( Silke & Veldhuis, 2017 ). Consequently, they become detached from lifestyles and experiences that are likely to protect them from offending in the future. Also, activities and experiences related to increased risk of criminal behavior in the future come into play. For this group, the removal of protective factors and increase in risk factors implies that imprisonment increases the chances of future offending. On the other hand, the hostile and harsh prison environment generates intensified feelings of insecurity, dislocation, and anxiety among the vulnerable inmates. To counter this, they may search for role models and other strategies of coping. One such coping mechanism is a religion ( Awan, 2013 ). Since the prison robs them of a means of expressing their identity, the prisoners look for an individual that they can emulate. This quest is exploited by radical Imams of other inmates, initiating the process of radicalization of the prisoner ( Angus, 2016 ; Awan, 2013 ).
Biblical Radicalization
Religion coupled with religious conversion play a significant role in prisons. It has been argued that conversion is used by some prisoners to reduce their sentences. However, despite this, religion is crucial in offering psychological, spiritual and sometimes physical needs ( Silke & Veldhuis, 2017 ) . Also, religion helps in reducing the chances of offending in the future. This way it aids is adequately remedying some of the adverse impacts of imprisonment. Embracing religion can help in rationalizing and explaining how one ends up being imprisoned. For instance, an individual may perceive his imprisonment as being a consequence of failure to abide by his or her religion’s teachings. This may be attributed to the working of evil. By attributing the crime committed to an external factor, an inmate frees himself or herself from guilt. However, some prisoners may not seek to transfer the blame to anyone else and thus embrace faith as a way of atoning the ills.
The adoption of a set of religious practices or beliefs results in the acceptance of a new way of living or outlook. It also may provide an escape from the challenges of prison life. Further, it may also offer a new set of guidelines and rules for living which aids in giving a prisoner self-control and a sense of certainty ( Didier & Guild , 2015 ). This helps to reduce the levels of aggression, stress and tension hence improving a prisoner’s interactions with his colleagues. Practicing religion allows the admittance of a prisoner to a particular group. In this regard, by adopting a certain religious identity, a prisoner is given access to the religiously-oriented group and hence enjoys various benefits. Firstly, the group offers a supportive environment whereby the recruit can learn about the new faith. Secondly, the group offers protection from violence and victimization by other prisoners. Thirdly, the adoption of a religion improves the prisoner's perception of the outside world. For instance, it may signify an individual's commitment towards turning a new leaf. Religious affiliation, in some instances, leads to access to certain privileges such as visitors, welfare facilities, letters as well as the reconnection with the outside world. Therefore, embracing a religious identity and joining a religious group does not necessarily result in radicalization but rather may prevent the individual from offending in the future. Despite this, radicalization and extremism are strongly linked to religious factions in prison.
Islam, as opposed to other religions, has been closely linked to radicalization and extremism ( Awan, 2013 ; Jones, 2013) . It has been argued that the success of religious movements is closely linked to their ability to foster and maintain strong internal attachments and at the same retain an open social network that can form and maintain ties to outsiders. Islam perfectly fits in this description. Notably, the success of Islam in prisons is associated with specific aspects of Islamic beliefs and practices. For instance, Islam strongly emphasizes communal prayer which aids in fostering strong internal attachments ( UNODC , 2016 ; Bossong, 2014 ). The communal prayer coupled with Quranic recitation changes social relationships and self-image. This results in ties of action and identification between Muslim sacred texts and believers ( Silke & Veldhuis, 2017 ) . Further, communal worship, construction of positive identity and racial egalitarianism facilitate greater social and moral discipline amongst the prisoners. On the other hand, communal worship results in enhanced bonding and creates a sense of community which is anchored on the scriptural emphasis on belief in God, egalitarianism and righteous conduct. The Islamic value and mores also present prisoners with new ways of living that supplement rehabilitation by fostering healthy self-conceptions. Islamic pillars such as charity, prayer, fasting, faith and pilgrimage encourage prisoners to find peace and embrace selfless acts. Ultimately, the religion gives inmates a sense of cultural pride and self-esteem resulting in a more significant following. Owing to these attributes, prisoners are likely to be attracted to Islam resulting in increased chances of being inducted into extremism.
In recent times, all regions of the world have been subjected to consequences of different types and acts of extremism. Extremism has also evolved taking new capabilities and forms. It finds inspiration in a wide range of ideologies while its activities are not confined to hierarchical and centralized organizations. The motivation to resort to extremism can either be ideological, issue-based or ethnic-nationalist. The attacks orchestrated by violent extremists result in more harm than just economic damage and deaths. Rather, they intensify divisions between communities resulting in increased chances of reactionary extremist views in different factions of the society. This, in return, breeds more violent extremism hence a cycle of radicalization, aggression followed by violent responses.
Solutions and Implications
Imprisonment undoubtedly acts as a source of various psychological and social conditions that foster criminalization, radicalization and extremist tendencies in the future ( UNODC , 2016 ). Thus, there is a need to improve the safety of inmates as well as the general security of prisons ought o be improved. Prison administrators and staff also ought to be more conscious of radicalization and thus boost surveillance, communication and information sharing on the same ( Hofmann, 2012 ) . Further, there is a need to cut off the inmates from the outside world by ensuring that there is no access to such channels of communication as the internet. Moreover, improvements should be made in selecting, screening as well as supervising both volunteer and professional religious groups and leaders ( Angus, 2016 ) . In this case, Imams should be carefully monitored to ensure that they impart the right knowledge of the prisoners. On being detected, radicalized prisoners should be contained and de-radicalization efforts initiated ( Elshimi, 2015 ; Didier & Guild , 2015; Schmid, 2013 ; Dechesne, 2011 ) . Countering radicalization in the post-imprisonment period should also be emphasized. This is by devising and implementing a pre-release program to help prisoners in finding work being re-integrated into the community.
Counter-terrorism measures play a crucial role in enhancing security ( Didier & Guild , 2015) . However, there is a need to understand the disaffection and experiences of Muslim youth as a separate issue. This is because the pursuit of social cohesion entails focusing on a community’s diversity including the range of socio-economic, religious and cultural groups as opposed to targeting a particular group ( UNODC , 2016 ). Another constructive way of addressing radicalization is focusing on points of tension and exploring points of consensus and agreement on how people can live together peacefully and not targeting individual groups. Inter-faith dialogue is also important at the community level in which case the views of cultural and religious leaders are taken into consideration. These leaders are important in fostering a sense of belonging and investment; engagement; purpose; and supportive relationships. As a result, individuals are not likely to experience self-crises and to search for answers in which case they are susceptible to those offering them alternative practices, ideologies and such courses of action as violence.
Conclusion
I n order to devise strategies for countering and responding to radicalization, there is a need to understand both radicalization and extremist activities in prisons particularly in the context of a biblical worldview. With globalization, prisons in different parts of the world continue to hold individuals from different religious backgrounds. This increases chances of religious radicalization. The increased terrorist attacks in various cities across the world highlight the dangers posed by the small groups of radicalized and violent individuals. The pains of imprisonment play a role in the radicalization of prisoners. This is because vulnerable individuals are likely to adapt to the prison environment by seeking psychological and physical protection by joining new groups. This quest is exploited by radical Imams or other inmates, who initiate the process of radicalization of the prisoner. To address the challenge, there is a need to improve the safety of inmates as well as the general security of prisons, increase consciousness on radicalization, cut off the inmates from the outside world, and closely monitor religious groups and leaders. On being detected, radicalized prisoners should be contained and de-radicalization efforts initiated. Countering radicalization in the post-imprisonment period is also critical while inter-faith dialogue aids in addressing the challenge at the community level.
References
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