Introduction
The revolt of 1936-39 in Palestine was against the perceived invasion and controls of the country by the Jewish the British colony. Religion, notables (elites), and peasants played an imperative role in the revolt. The elite (notables) were composed of the most politically influential people in Palestine and also the affluent people. Throughout the revolution, a significant number of the elite failed to support the efforts of the peasants in the revolution 1 . The elite were keen to protect their status quo, and were working closely with the British administration to discourage the rebels 2 . The division among the Muslims and the Islamic religion was also the main reason why the rebels failed to achieve their objectives during the religion 3 . The external influence, especially by the powerful British administration and the economically stable Jewish immigrants had negative effects on the revolution 4 . Additionally, ideologies were used to portray most of the rebels as being ‘terrorists’, therefore justifying the mass murder of the rebels 5 . The purpose of the discussion is to indicate the role of Islam and the notables in the Palestinian revolt of 1936-39.
The main reasons for the revolution were the Jewish immigration, the acquisition of the Arab land, the proposed establishment of the national government 6 . The immigration of the Jews and their settlement in Palestine was supported by the Balfour Declaration of 1926. The declaration indicated that the authority in Palestine should enhance the protection of the Jewish people, including their rights. The Palestinian authority was required to foster the establishment of a ‘national home’ for the Jewish population. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 contributed to the resistance because the immigration posed real economic threats to the peasants. The Jewish immigrants bought land from the peasants, even against the Arabs’ wish. The declaration contributed to the influx of the Jewish community, especially between 1931 and 1935. During that period, it was estimated that the Jewish population grew from 175,000 to about 400,000. The main contributing factors were the Nazism, the U.S quota system, and the economic depression. Millions of the Jews had been annihilated in the Nazi-controlled countries in Europe, particularly in Poland and Germany. The strict quota system in the United States meant that most of the Jewish immigrants had to look for other countries to settle. Palestine became a better option for most of the Jewish immigrants in the Middle East. The main reason was that the Jewish community was protected by the British administration in Palestine. With the lack of a legitimate government in Palestine, no one was listening to the grievances of the local people. Therefore, the Jews bought land parcel of land from the peasants and began settling in Palestine.
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The rebels, who were mostly the peasants, were against the selling of land to the Jews, whom they considered the outsiders. The main economic activity of the majority of the peasants was farming 7 . There was a real threat to the social and economic progress of the peasants because of the acquisition of their lands by the Jews 8 . The peasants perceived the Jewish immigration as an invasion to their territory and a threat to their livelihoods 9 . That explains why they were opposed to any external ‘aggressors’ and ready to use any means necessary to prevent any form of invasion.
The British colony had proposed the establishment of a national government. One of the main problems is that the government was to be made up of the elite, especially from the urban population 10 . The peasants felt that they would remain marginalized because a unity government would fail to protect their interests 11 . The peasants perceived the notables to be unaware of the challenges facing them. The Unity Government would control every social and political activity, which was against the wishes of the peasants 12 . The lack of consultation on leadership changes led to more conflicts. The marginalized communities felt underrepresented in the process 13 . The educated, upper class members of the community, and the British administration took the center stage. The revolt of 1936-39 in Palestine was aimed at protecting the interests of the majority, yet the marginalized communities in the rural areas 14 . There were various reasons why the revolution failed to achieve its objectives 15 . The following are some of the leading factors:
Islam
Islam was the main religion in Palestine during the revolution. The religion played an imperative role in shaping the beliefs, attitudes, and perception of the rebels and the notables about the revolution 16 . One of the main factors of religion is to enhance social order and shared goals. Religion offers a community the meaning of life and a hope for a better future. During the revolution, there was a lack of political influence in most of the rural and remote areas 17 . The political class isolated and marginalized the rural population 18 . In most countries, the political class has an influence on the religious ideologies for the purpose of fostering social and economic development. With the political influence being weak in the rural areas, religious division occurred 19 .
The peasants in the rural areas worshipped the walis (saints) and did not have mosques. Instead, the people worshipped in the maqams (shrines) 20 . Additionally, the Muslims in the rural areas also attended particular functions from the Christian Churches as they perceived such structures to be shrines. The localization of the religion led to various ideologies, causing more division between the urban and rural Muslims 21 . The political class, led by the elite members realized how the religious division was causing social disorder and disharmony. As result, the elite propagated and supported the Salafiya movement 22 . The movement was aimed at fostering the religious reforms, particularly by targeting the peasants 23 . The aim of the religious reforms was to enhance unity among all the Muslims and weaken the ideologies of the peasants. The government aimed at taking the control of the religion to achieve its main objectives. However, the government used the formal education as the main strategy to achieve the religious reformation. The government enhanced the rural-urban migration to encourage more young people to seek education in the urban areas. As a result, most of the peasants were slowly being assimilated to the religious culture of the elite. A significant number of the educated peasants were made to believe that their former religious practices were ‘un-Islamic’ and ‘backward.’
From the onset, the religion played a vital role in fostering the mindsets of the rebels. The religious beliefs and ideologies made them believe that they had the right to protect themselves against any form of oppression and external threats 24 . They believed that it was their noble duty to protect one another and to fight together against a common enemy. Therefore, it is apparent that the differences in religious ideologies between the elite and the rural communities led to the failures in the revolution. It is also vital to note that Islam was the major motivation to the revolution. That explains why after the most of the peasants got ‘educated’ and changed their perception on religion, the revolution was weakened. If all the communities, regardless of their socioeconomic status were united from the beginning, it is possible that the war against the external threats would have been won.
Role of the Notables
From the Palestinian revolution perspective, the notables referred to the elite. The notables comprised of the educated, socioeconomically stable, the powerful, and predominantly the urban population 25 . The notables were influential, especially among the urban population because they wielded the political power. The elites subscribed to ideologies that enhanced their status quo, which was majorly to protect their political and economic statuses 26 . The elite were the minority in Palestine, but were powerful because they control the wealth. They controlled and owned large tracks of land. They determined how the land is distributed, explaining why they were opposed by the peasants.
The notables had a specific role during the revolt of 1936-39. The main role was to advance their interests. The British administration worked closely with the elite groups to defeat the rebels. Firstly, the British administration promised rewards to the elites if they helped in weakening ideologies of the resistant forces 27 . Like the British administration, the notables believed that the revolution was a breach of peace, which would eventually affect the economic growth and development 28 . Without peace, the notables knew that the economy would be affected negatively 29 . Therefore, there was a need for the notables to ensure that Palestine and especially the urban centers, enjoyed peace.
The other reason why the notables were opposed to the revolt of 1936-39 was to foster the Unity Government. They were guaranteed of the political positions if the unity government succeeded. Wielding more political power was necessary is protecting their statuses. As aforementioned, the some elite groups had already been promised the various administrative positions as a reward for their collaboration with the British government.
The elite worked against the peasants and rebels to the advantage of the Jewish immigrants and the wishes of the British government. One of the main strategies to weaken the resistance was to allow the Jews to purchase and own land 30 . With a majority of the peasants being poor, they were more willing to sell their land at a very low cost. As a result, Palestine witnessed an influx of Jewish immigrants 31 . While the peasants lamented that the acquisition of their land would result to more economic strains, the notables did not protect them. Instead, the notables joined the immigrants in purchasing more lands to push the peasants away and force them to be educated 32 . Without the land and most of the young people getting formal education, the resistance was being weakened 33 . The elites were so successful in their strategies, unlike the rebels who failed because of the lack of political will and an organized army. The elites enhanced the ‘divide and rule’ method to ensure that the resistant groups did not achieve their objectives.
The notables joined the British administration in condemning the resistance. Instead of addressing the genuine issues raised by most of the peasants, the notables propagated the notion that the rebels were engaging in acts of terrorism. Most of the resistant groups were also labeled ‘terrorists’ which legitimized the inhumane attacks on such groups. The British government killed thousands of the rebels, mostly the peasants because they were believed to be terrorists.
Relationship between Islam and Class in the Revolt
From the above analysis, Islam was used by the ruling class (notables) to achieve their goals. The ruling class knew that propagating a different ideology from that of the rebels would lead to success in the war. Class and Islam worked against the revolution leading to the weakening of the rebellion. The notables were also influenced by the external forces in their attempt to fight for the rights of the peasants. The relationship between class and the religion was that neither of the two was as powerful as possible to make any significant changes. The division among the Muslims was a major challenge, as mentioned before. Palestine was also becoming a country of many religious groups. There were Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and other religious groups that did not subscribe to the same religious ideologies as the Muslims. As a result, the society was much divided along the religious lines, and in most cases, they viewed one another as a threat. Religious unity would have played a vital role in fostering the success of the revolution. However, the ideological differences put the Muslims on one side, and the other religious groups on the other. Additionally, the division among the Muslims meant that any form of resistance would be very weak. There was a need for the rural and urban Muslims to be united. Instead, there was an attempt to discourage the Muslims from the rural areas against their religious practices, which were labeled retrogressive and against the true Islam. The term ‘terrorism’ was introduced to discourage most of the young people from joining the revolution. Therefore, it was the people, and not the religion that failed to unite the people. The peasants were united through their religion and were ready to fight against any form of exploitation. In fact, the peasants had previously fought and won against the Egyptians when they tried to occupy their territory. The British administration used the elites to establish another form of Islamic ideologies. The new ideologies discouraged some forms of worship and encouraged people to live in harmony with one another.
There was also a relationship between the social class and failure of the revolution. The revolution seemed to be against the peasants (mostly the poor and marginalized) and the perceived aggressors. While it was important for all the Arabs in Palestine to unite against the external aggressiveness, there was a division along the class factors. Palestine, like the United States, had a right to determine the number of immigrants that would be accommodated in the country. There were many injustices that were happening that needed to be addressed by all the citizens of Palestine regardless of social and economic statuses. For instance, there was no consultation in the formulation of the Balfour Declaration of 1926. Only a few elite people in Palestine were engaged. The elite are to blame for most of the challenges facing the peasants and other people in Palestine. It is important to note that the Palestine lacked a government that would have represented the wishes of the people. Therefore, the only way that the peasants would have their grievances known and addressed was through a revolt. There was nothing wrong with the country saying that it would only accept a certain number of the Jews. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 was faulty from the beginning. The declaration gave so much power to the Jewish community, which was not similar to what was happening to other countries. The ruling class failed to question the discrepancies in the declaration. They also failed to address the issues affecting the peasants, yet they had some influence. The fact that the elite advanced the interests of the British administration and that of the Jews demonstrates that they were working against the wishes of the people. There was no attempt by the elite to listen to the grievances of the peasants and other marginalized communities, yet they raised genuine concerns. For instance, hundreds of the peasants became poor and internally displaced because they sold their lands, and also because of the conflicts. It is not true that the Palestine did not have an influence for the lack of a unity government. What were lacking were the unity and a shared vision for all the people, regardless of their class. Even without the government, if the whole country spoke with one voice, it would have been possible to stop most of the injustices. However, the elite decided to protect their interests.
Challenges Facing Notables during revolt
The notables were the most influential group of people in Palestine during the revolution. They were considered to be among most learned, affluent, and politically influential members of the society. During the revolution, Palestine did not have a recognized government. The country lacked a national government that would enhance peace and harmony both in the urban and in the rural areas. One of the main reasons for the lack a unity government was because of the external influence. While the notables were in support of a formal government and the establishment of the council representing the grievances of the Palestinian Arabs, the powerful external influences opposed such a move. The Jews and British administration had certain interests in Palestine. The Jews wanted to acquire more properties and land in Palestine. Their main aim was to purchase more land from the peasants. While some notables tried to convince the ‘government’ against allowing the sale of the peasants’ land, the activity continue. Some notables argued that the continued sale of lands to the Jews would make more peasants poorer, which would contribute to more economic and social challenges. Therefore, while the notables are normally accused of colluding with the Jews and the British administration to oppress the peasants, it is vital to recognize that some of them (notables) tried to raise the alarm, but they were powerless.
Another main challenge that rendered the notables or any other persons powerless in the attempt to address the issues affecting the peasants was the Balfour Declaration of 1926. The Declaration stated that the existing authority in Palestine would support the establishment of ‘national home’ for the Jewish community. The Declaration continued to indicate that Palestinian authority would ensure that the Jews are not exposed to any form of prejudice and discrimination during their stay in Palestine. Thirdly, the Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave the Jews the rights to own properties and protection against any form of injustices. The declaration was considered very controversial and went through a number of amendments. It appeared as if the declaration meant that the Jews would occupy Palestine and make it a Jewish State. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 was also the main cause of the revolution in Palestine. Most of the Palestinian Arabs perceived the declaration to be a threat to their existence. With the declaration in place, it was difficult for the section of the notables who were willing to fight for the rights of the peasants to achieve their objectives. The notables were also not powerful politically because of the lack of official government. The British administration had more influence and was more powerful both militarily and economically. As a result, any attempt by the notables would not make any great impact.
The other form of external influence was the British Administration. As aforementioned, the British government had interests, not just in Palestine, but in the entire Middle East. The first interest was to foster harmony in Palestine. With tranquility in the society, the British government would be able to achieve its objectives. The British controlled some oil fields in Iraq. Therefore, the Middle East was important to the British people for economic reasons. The ongoing revolution would make it difficult for the operations in the oil fields. Any strikes at the oil pipelines would lead to major losses. Some rebels targeted the oil companies as a way to weaken the British government. The fact that the British government wanted to protect its interests explains why it rejected the attempts to have a legitimate government in Palestine. Therefore, even in if any person, including some of the notables tried to express their dissatisfaction with the British, no one would take them seriously because, legally speaking, they did not have any political authority to do so.
Apart from the external influences, the notables also faced the resistance from within. As aforementioned, there was a conflict between the notables and the peasants. The notables were considered to be helping Jews and the British administration to achieve their interests at the expense of the peasants. Therefore, the peasants rejected any attempt by the notables to represent their grievances. While some notables were ready to talk about the oppression and injustices facing the peasants, they lacked the moral authority to achieve their objectives. However, the peasants had all the reasons to reject the representation by the notables. As aforementioned, a majority of the notables used their influence and economic power to perpetuate the oppression and exploitation of the peasants. Despite being predominantly Arabs, the notables were among the people who bought and later sold the peasants’ land to the Jews. The notables took the advantage of the low socioeconomic status of the peasants to exploit them. They bought the lands at a very cheap price, and later sold them at a much more profit to the Jews. That explained the conflict between the notables and the peasants. Nevertheless, it would be unfair to generalize and state that the notables were not aware of the injustices facing the peasants. Most of the notables were actually unhappy about the state of affairs in Palestine. They did not like the kind of administration that did not respect the rights of the marginalized people in Palestine. However, the lack of political power and the division among the people of the Palestine made it difficult to make any significant changes.
The discussion has established a number of factors that led to the failure of the revolt. One of reasons is that the external influence was very powerful. The British had more influence, explaining the formation and execution of the Balfour Declaration of 1926. As aforementioned, the British controlled the oil in countries such as Iraq. Also, the British had a strong and organized army, unlike the divisiveness that existed in Palestine. The second reason was the division along the religious line. The Muslims were divided into liberal and the traditional Islam. The new ideologies in Islam were propagated by the British government in order to minimize the resistance. The people in the rural areas were warned against certain kinds of worship and beliefs. They were told that such kinds of worship were against the true Islamic faith. The lack of unity in worship failed to unite the people to a shared goal. Thirdly, while education was important, it was used to weaken the protests. Most of the young people were encouraged to join school. They soon forgot about the grievances they once had. Education was used by the British government to divide and rule the people. Fourthly, the elite failed to unite with the marginalized groups in the pursuit of common goal. The elite were influential and might have assisted in addressing the real issues affecting the people. Instead, they were pursuing their own interest. Most of them had been promised political position if they assisted in defeating the rebellion. Most of the elite participated in purchasing the peasants’ land and later have it distributed to the Jewish migrants.
Summary and Conclusion
The rebels, who were made up of mostly the peasants from the rural areas were against any invasion by the foreigners. A majority of the peasants were afraid that the invasion will lead to more economic and social challenges. The peasants were among the poorest people in Palestine. The division among the Muslims and the collaboration of the elites with British administration and the Jewish immigrants were the main reasons why the rebels failed to achieve their objectives. The notables aimed at protecting their status quo. The notables were politically strong and politically stable. The elite failed to protect peasants, especially by failing to stop the Jewish and other notables form purchasing land from them (peasants). As a result, most of the rebels were weakened. They were economically unstable and lacked political backing. Most of them were labeled terrorists and were killed. At the end of the revolution, the rebels had not achieved their objectives. The selfishness of the elites and division among the Muslims were the main contributing factors for the failure. The revolt of 1936-39 in Palestine was against the perceived invasion and controls of the country by the Jewish the British colony. Religion, notables (elites), and peasants played an imperative role in the revolt. The elite (notables) were composed of the most politically influential people in Palestine and also the affluent people. Throughout the revolution, a significant number of the elite failed to support the efforts of the peasants in the revolution. The elite were keen to protect their status quo, and were working closely with the British administration to discourage the rebels. The division among the Muslims and the Islamic religion was also the main reason why the rebels failed to achieve their objectives during the religion. The external influence, especially by the powerful British administration and the economically stable Jewish immigrants had negative effects on the revolution. Additionally, ideologies were used to portray most of the rebels as being ‘terrorists’, therefore justifying the mass murder of the rebels. However, it is imperative to note that a section of the notables were aware of the issues facing the peasants and were more willing to address them. Some notables did actually speak against the uncontrolled sale of the peasants’ land to the foreigners, especially the Jews. Despite their willingness to address the oppression and exploitation of the peasants, the notables lacked the political and the military power. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave the Jews the right to own properties in Palestine. It was not possible to circumvent that declaration. The notables also lacked the moral authority to foster any form of peaceful coexistence in Palestine. They were considered to be a threat to the peasants since most of them had purchased the lands that were meant to be for the Arabs and later sold them to the Jews. Therefore, the division within the Islamic religion and notables explain why it was difficult to defeat the external influences. Palestine also lacked a unity government that would facilitate the change and express the grievances facing the people.
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1 Yazbak, M. From Poverty to Revolt: Economic Factors in the Outbreak of the 1936 Rebellion in Palestine. Middle Eastern Studies, (2000), 36(3), pp. 93–113.
2 Lockman, Z. Contending Visions of the Middle East: the History and Politics of Orientalism. Second Edition. (New York University, 2004).
3 Harouvi, E. 'Reuven Zaslany (Shiloah) and the Covert Cooperation with British Intelligence During the Second World War'. In *Carmel, Hési (Ed.). Intelligence for Peace: The Role of Intelligence in Times of Peace. (Routledge, 1999). 78
4 Norris, J. Repression and Rebellion: Britain's Response to the Arab Revolt in Palestine of 1936–39. (The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 2008), 36(1):25–45.
5 Goren, T. The Judaization of Haifa at the Time of the Arab Revolt. (Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 40, Issue 4 July, pp. 135–152, 2004), 135-152.
6 Swedenburg, T. "The Role of the Palestinian Peasantry in the Great Revolt (1936–1939)", reprinted in Hourani, Albert H., et al., The Modern Middle East I.B. (Tauris, 2004), 467–503
7 Ibid, 497
8 Swedenburg, T. Memories of Revolt. The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past. (The University of Arkansas Press, 2003).
9 Lesch, A. Arab politics in frustration of a nationalist Palestine, 1917-1939: The movement. (6th Ed.) (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1979), chapter 4-5
10 Norris, J. Repression and Rebellion: Britain's Response to the Arab Revolt in Palestine of 1936–39. (The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 2008), 36(1):25–45.
11 Gelvin, J. The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War. (Cambridge University Press, 2007), chapters 3-6
12 Harouvi, E. 'Reuven Zaslany (Shiloah) and the Covert Cooperation with British Intelligence During the Second World War'. In *Carmel, Hési (Ed.). Intelligence for Peace: The Role of Intelligence in Times of Peace. (Routledge, 1999). 78
13 Townshend, C. ‘The First Intifada: Rebellion in Palestine, 1936-39’ History Today. Vol. 39 Issue 7, p13 (1989), (1989), pp. 13-19.
14 Sufian, S. ‘Anatomy of the 1936-39 revolt: Images of the Body in Political Cartoons of Mandate Palestine’ (Journal of Palestine Studies, 2008), 65
15 Wasserstein, B. Israel and Palestine. (Profile Books, 2004), 98
16 Harouvi, E. 'Reuven Zaslany (Shiloah) and the Covert Cooperation with British Intelligence During the Second World War'. In *Carmel, Hési (Ed.). Intelligence for Peace: The Role of Intelligence in Times of Peace. (Routledge, 1999). 78
17 Harouvi, E. 'Reuven Zaslany (Shiloah) and the Covert Cooperation with British Intelligence During the Second World War'. In *Carmel, Hési (Ed.). Intelligence for Peace: The Role of Intelligence in Times of Peace. (Routledge, 1999). 78
18 Yazbak, M. From Poverty to Revolt: Economic Factors in the Outbreak of the 1936 Rebellion in Palestine. Middle Eastern Studies, (2000), 36(3), pp. 93–113.
19 Lesch, A. Arab politics in frustration of a nationalist Palestine, 1917-1939: The movement. (6th Ed.) (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1979), chapter 4-5
20 Swedenburg, T. "The Role of the Palestinian Peasantry in the Great Revolt (1936–1939)", reprinted in Hourani, Albert H., et al., The Modern Middle East I.B. (Tauris, 2004), 467–503
21 Khalidi, W. From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem until 1948. (Institute for Palestine Studies, 1987), 67.
22 Nicosia, F. Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany. (Cambridge University Press, 2008). 78-90
23 Hourani, A., Khoury, P. and Wilson, M. (Eds), The Modern Middle East: a Reader, Patricia Crone, Pre-Industrial Societies (2nd Ed.). (I.B.Tauris, 2004), Chapters 1-4.
24 Gelvin, J. The Modern Middle East: A History. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), Chapters 3-6.
25 Goren, T. The Judaization of Haifa at the Time of the Arab Revolt. (Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 40, Issue 4 July, pp. 135–152, 2004), 135-152.
26 Khalidi, R. The Palestinians and 1948: the underlying causes of failure. In Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim (Eds.). (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 12-36.
27 Nashif, E. Palestinian Political Prisoners: Identity and Community. (Taylor & Francis, 2008), 76
28 Khalidi, W. From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem until 1948. (Institute for Palestine Studies, 1987), 67.
29 Matthews, C. Confronting an Empire, Constructing a Nation: Arab Nationalists and Popular Politics in Mandate Palestine. (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006), Chapter 2-5.
30 Lesch, A. Arab politics in frustration of a nationalist Palestine, 1917-1939: The movement. (6th Ed.) (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1979), chapter 4-5
31 Lockman, Z. Comrades and Enemies: Arab and Jewish. Workers in Palestine, 1906-1948. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 240-265.
32 Lockman, Z. Contending Visions of the Middle East: the History and Politics of Orientalism. Second Edition. (New York University, 2004).
33 Matthews, C. Confronting an Empire, Constructing a Nation: Arab Nationalists and Popular Politics in Mandate Palestine. (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006), Chapter 2-5.
