Abstract
Although most theorists in the past focused on how the structure of the society influenced crime, modern theorists posit that individuals have the responsibility for their conduct. These contemporary crime theories mainly suggest that individuals commit crimes mainly because they lack self-control or are too obsessed with self-interest. The strain theory states that people may offend when they fail to attain their goals. The failure usually causes frustration and anger, and when people fail to cope with them, they could offend. The modern social control theory delves into the aspect of self-interest. People may be obsessed with the pursuit of their self-interests to the point of being oblivious of their actions. As a remedy, contemporary theorists propose that parents train their children to embrace discipline and responsibility.
Summary of Chapter 14
Introduction
In the 1960s and 1970s, criminal theories mostly suggested that social aspects or the structure of the society contributed immensely to crime. At the time, theorists suggested that issues such as race and social class were prominent contributory factors towards committing of crimes by individuals. For instance, it was commonly speculated that the poor living conditions of the blacks and Hispanics in the ghettos succinctly explained the high rate of crime in those settlements. Therefore, as theorists suggested, if the relevant agencies wanted to reduce the crime rates, the welfare of the people in poor neighborhoods needed to be improved.
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On the contrary, contemporary theories of crime refuted the blame on the society or social factors and instead suggested that individuals were solely responsible for their crimes. These theories look at individuals and try to investigate why they commit crimes and how law enforcement agencies can focus on individuals to reduce crime or prevent recidivism.
The heritage of contemporary theory
People in the 1980s and 1990s began to lean towards conservatism. It was a reaction towards the 1960s and 1970s where, as already mentioned, people attributed crime to social factors (McShane, & Williams, 2018). People had previously thought that poverty and racial discrimination were the dominant factors that made individuals to commit offenses. However, from the 1980s, people thought that blaming the society for crimes committed made them to lose control of their children. People quickly shifted in their views about crime, and proposed that individuals were responsible for their crimes and not just the society. It was from this basis that theorists developed proposals on how individual responsibility had an impact on crime.
Modern strain theory
The anomie, or strain theory, had initially sought to investigate the effect of cultural change and inequality on the rate of crime. However, with time, the theory evolved and focused on the individual level.
General strain theory
Robert Agnew is credited for the development of the general strain theory. According to Agnew, individuals usually have certain goals in life, which are usually positive. However, they could fail to accomplish them. The failure leads to frustrations or anger. Sometimes, failure may expose people to rejection. For example, if a teenager drops out of school, he or she may be isolated by friends. Individuals who cannot cope with the negative consequences could likely resort to deviance. The teenager who drops out of school may resort to violence, when people around reject him. Besides, the teenager may need to survive and if he fails to find something to do, he could decide to engage in petty crime.
Modern social control theory
This theory suggests that individuals commit crimes in pursuit of self-interest. Individuals lack self-control in the pursuit of their interests. Parents have variously been blamed for not watching on the conduct of their children or teaching them the consequences of their actions. Most wealthy parents, for example, interfere less in the activities of their children, who consequently falsely think they can get away with anything. If the behavior or conduct of the children is not closely monitored, they may adopt undesirable conduct, which may cause them to offend in the pursuit of their interests. Some individuals commit crimes under the influence of drugs. Their pursuit for pleasure, in this case, makes them oblivious of their activities. Thirdly, groups may also encourage individuals to commit crimes. For instance, a member of a gang may want to prove to his peers of his prowess or strength. When the other group members cheer or jeer him, he may go beyond limits and commit a crime in the process. To some extent, this theory is intricately linked to people’s failures to control their ego. They could get excited or feel excessively proud and in the process become oblivious of the consequences of their actions.
Research on low self-control
Most researchers agree that a significant proportion of white collar offenders are young. The results are attributed to the inability of young people to control their emotions. It is suggested that most young people are impulsive, energetic, and have temper. If they cannot control these aspects, they are likely to find themselves in trouble with law enforcement agencies. For instance, children from wealthy families if not monitored closely, could drive fast on roads and even use drugs because of the pursuit of their interests. Researchers suggest that training of children to embrace positive habits or traits could help prevent crimes.
Self-control theory and policy
It is suggested that the first step to address low self-control is to create programs that properly socialize children from the age of six to eight years. Children need to be taught about discipline and responsibility (McShane, & Williams, 2018). Currently, most parents in the United States, due to their busy nature, do not have time to socialize with their children or teach them about responsibility. Children may sit by themselves in their rooms playing games or picking behavior from their peers. When some parents discover that their children have been arrested or have picked up certain undesirable behavior, they express utter shock. Some say that is not possible to monitor children all the time on what they do. Nevertheless, the self-control theory does not suggest that parents watch over their children all the time. Rather, the theory suggests that parents teach their children about responsibility and discipline. Even when parents are not around, children will always behave responsibly.
Modern developmental theories
They suggest that people’s propensity to offending changes in relation to the course of their lives. People could experience violence in their families, lose their jobs, divorce, and so on. Good and positive aspects in the course of one’s life may either cause them to stop engaging in criminal activities or influence them to participate in criminal activities.
Life course theories
People usually pass through different stages in life, for example, graduation, joining the military, marriage, getting children, and so on. It is argued that the formation of social bonds such as work friendships can reduce crime rates (McShane, & Williams, 2018). When people are stable and have positive relationships, they do not get the motivation to offend. However, when people are unstable and go through unpleasant stages in life, they could be motivated to offend.
Life-course-persistent offending
There is a group of people, who, as a result of neurological factors may offend from their childhood into adulthood. However, to a large extent, when people mature, they have little motivation to offend. Older people know the consequences of their actions and mostly regret about their past actions. Policy makers need to consider life sentences because older people, save for a small proportion are not likely to reoffend.
Interactional theory
It is a theory that was developed by Terence Thornberry who suggested that in childhood, parental attachment is very important. If children lack parental attachment, they compensate with attachment to peers, where they are likely to learn values associated with delinquency and deviance. When they grow into adults, they are likely to persist with delinquency and deviance because they have no alternative values. The theory suggests that it is very important for parents to show care and support to their children when they are still young because when they grow old, it becomes difficult to change them. Parents must never allow their children to learn values solely from their peers.
Conclusion
Individuals have a responsibility towards their conduct and the society cannot be blamed for all crimes. People may commit crimes because they cannot cope with negative expectations as well as the failure to exercise self-control. It is important for parents to train their children about discipline and responsibility to prevent crimes.
Questions
Critical thinking questions
Do certain people have a propensity to commit crimes?
Yes, some people are more likely to commit crimes than others. For example, drug addicts or peddlers are likely to commit crimes more than those who do not use drugs. The pursuit of their self-interests may make them oblivious of their actions. Drug peddlers may kill anyone who tries to obstruct them from engaging in the trade. The best thing the society can do is for families to train their children or teenagers about responsibility and discipline to prevent such scenarios. When children are taught about the harmful effects of drugs and the consequences of offending, they are least likely to offend.
How rehabilitation is implicated in each of the theories in the chapter
The chapter focuses on contemporary theories of crime, which place responsibility of crime to individuals. In each theory, there is an element of self-consciousness and that people should be taught to exercise self-control. Rehabilitation efforts usually focus on individuals and not groups. Similarly, in these theories, the focus is on individuals, with the aim of making them change their bad habits, and exercise self-control. For example, in the social control theory, it is suggested that parents train their children about responsibility and discipline to help them acquire self-control so that they do not become deviants. These are rehabilitation efforts, which are designed to make children adopt positive life habits.
Type of events that could reduce the occurrence of crime over the life course
Firstly, I think people need to have stable employment. Most of the time, they will think about their jobs and how to improve themselves. Secondly, they need to form positive social bonds at places of work or within the environment they live. Positive relationships trigger positive discussions, giving individuals little chance to be overwhelmed with negative thoughts. Marriage and having children can also help individuals focus on their families instead of thinking about offending.
How low self-control may be related to certain types of crimes
Low self-control could cause crimes such as rape (offenders cannot control their sexual desires), and gang crimes such as drug trafficking, robbery, and burglary. Individuals act in groups and the strong influence overwhelms their consciousness or self-control. To address low self-control, the best way is to train, mostly children and teenagers about discipline and responsibility.
Practice essay questions
Institutional strain and how it can be reduced in the American communities today
Institutional strain is associated with the notion of the American Dream, where individuals are under pressure to excel. People are given higher expectations by the society, and when they fail, they are likely to be frustrated, and risk committing crimes. To reduce institutional strain, it is necessary for parents to leave children to do what they are best at and not subjecting them to undue pressure to fulfill their parents’ dreams. Secondly, people should live sustainable lives, meaning they need to avoid being obsessed with material things.
Developmental perspectives on crime and delinquency
Impulsive and energetic teenagers are likely to offend, but as people advance in age and go through various stages in life, they respond to negative and positive events accordingly. Young people are likely to offend because they know less of the consequences of their actions. Adults may offend less because they are more away of the consequences. However, when bad events happen in the course of people’s lives, they may offend and vice versa.
How child rearing practices may be related to law abiding behavior
Children who are trained about discipline and responsibility may not offend because they adopt good conduct. Secondly, children who are attached to their parents when they are still young learn important values which help them to become law-abiding citizens. A good example is the comparison between a child who is raised by the same parents that have a stable marriage and a child raised by parents having a rocky marriage. Children raised from stable marriages may have more positive outlook towards life than those raised by parents having trouble with their marriage.
Role of static and dynamic factors in influencing the criminal activity of a person over time
Static factors may be neurological aspects or values, which people develop when they are young. If the aspects are positive, people may never offend even when changing events set in. If they are negative, people may offend from childhood to adulthood. Dynamic factors refer to both positive and negative life events such as employment, and marriage status. Someone who previously had a stable job and did not offend could likely offend when he or she loses it and does not find other opportunities.
Reference
McShane, M. D., & Williams, F. P. (Eds.). (2018). Criminological Theory (Vol. 2). Taylor & Francis.
