Summary of Chapter 14
Chapter 14 is an in-depth discussion of the various contemporary theories that provide explanations to crime and criminality in the society. Majority of the theories were developed from 1985 to the present each demonstrating its complexity and conceptual difference that preceding perspectives. The theories are largely influenced by the conservatism social period of the 1980s and 1990s known as the “me generation” and “X generation respectively”. Their names suggest the expression of concern with the self and a clear reaction to the 1960s and 1970s, becoming a “lost” generation. The general feeling was that individual responsibility and restraint was essential for resisting deviance. The correct values learned from one’s parents would be integral to avoiding problems. As a result, three theoretical directions have been popular among criminologists during this period.
The modern strain theory is the first approach which transformed the original perspective from a structural theory to focus the strain on processual or personal level. He acknowledges the fact that strain theories look at problems of achieving positively valued goals. He adds two strains including avoidance of painful events or conditions which serve as the objective and subjective strains respectively. The objective strains are commonly disliked by a group while the subjective strains are more closely tied to the individual. It is not only the presence of these strains that cause crime and criminality but also their strength. In this case, the severity, length and frequency have higher possibility of leading to crime and tend to be long-term.
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The modern social control theory is the second approach developed to explain crime and criminality. Travis Hirschi’s version is the most popular among criminologists called self-control theory or originally propensity-event theory. It observed the key ingredients also known as crime proneness and the conditions that are likely to cause them to translate into crime. The theory would first redefine crime as the acts of force or fraud that primarily geared towards self-interest, effectively including white-collar crimes. The theorists believe that human beings are by nature self-interested hence crimes take place because the risk is thrilling and risky leading to excitement for the offender. In most cases these crimes do not require a skill or elaborate plans hence have few substantial benefits.
The modern developmental theories are the third and final explanation to crime and criminality. The perception contradicts the preceding theory as it indicates that a person’s likelihood of offending changes over time. In this regard, propensity for offending is closely associated with important good or bad life events. For instance, family violence, infidelity in marriage, and divorce. Life-course-persistent offending points out that there are two distinct groups of offenders; those that are persistent offenders and those who change over time. The first usually begins in childhood where antisocial behaviors are evident and continue into adulthood likely due to neurological deficits. The second group has majority of delinquents who seldom continue their offending behaviors into adulthood. Often, delinquency arises from social learning and served to show independence and misguided maturity.
Do certain people have a “propensity” to commit crime? If so, how much can society do to control incidents that may or may not occur?
There are certain individuals who have a propensity to commit crime when compared to others. Individuals who demonstrate antisocial behaviors due to neurological disorders may be included in this group. Others have traits of self-centeredness, insensitivity, impulsivity, and lower than average intelligence. Presence of strains that are of higher severity, frequency, and length may also lead to crime. Therefore, the society may seek appropriate behavioral modification techniques that may help in possibility of incidents of crime. The approach may also include pharmacological treatments particularly for those with neurological deficits. The critical concern is for members to identify the issue at an early age to help in effective development of pro-social behaviors.
How is rehabilitation implicated in each of the theories covered in this chapter?
Rehabilitation in the general strain theory is an important factor that may help eradicate possibility of committing crimes. In this case, individuals who have experienced objective or subjective strains should be provided with better coping mechanisms to avert deviance. In the social control theory, it is important that rehabilitation is used to identify the propensity traits and help the individual develop coping mechanisms that help in resisting opportunities that arise. Additionally, highlighting the negative consequences could help alleviate desire to commit crimes. In the developmental theory, rehabilitation is important for the relatively persistent offenders where the use of psychiatric therapies may help in eradication of the desire to commit crimes.
What types of events do you think are most influential in reducing the occurrence of criminality over the life of the course?
There are various events that can effectively help in reducing possibility of criminality. The first is teaching children from a young age the value of coping with adversity. In this regard, there are cases such as death, divorce, or becoming a social outcast that may be beyond the control of the individual. However, the reaction to such events are within the control of the child. Once such skills are developed it is less likely to lead to deviance. Another event that could help is learning pro-social skills where the individual understands the proper behavior to demonstrate at all times.
Can you think of some examples of how self-control may be related to some of the crimes? How do you think low-self-control could be addressed in treatment?
Self-control is closely associated with some crimes where individual traits like insensitivity and impulsivity may lead to an individual punching another due to a sudden bust of anger which may be categorized as assault. Lower than average intelligence and self-centered traits may influence an individual to rob a store where he or she visits every day simply to get the thrill of the crime. Treatment will involve helping individuals avoid high opportunity areas for committing crimes and developing more improved critical thinking techniques to avert criminal behavior.
What is meant by institutional strain and how can it be reduced in American communities today?
The theory proposes that institutional arrangement with a market where the market continues to dominate without restraint to social institutions like the family can lead to defiant behavior. The approach recognizes the influence of cultural and structural organization where strong emphasis is on monetary success and not on legitimate pursuit of financial success. The strong pressures of realizing the American Dream has made it possible for individuals to seek less desirable means to achieve this goal. In this case, a change in culture that attributes behavioral outcomes as the overall determinant of a successful individual.
What do developmental perspectives contribute to explanations of crime and delinquency?
Developmental perspectives recognize that the important good or bad events in life may lead to higher propensity to crime and delinquency. During the life-course-persistent offending it is evident that the larger group usually engages in delinquency due to adolescent changes and involvement with older youth who have negative behavior with defiance as a measure of showing maturity and independence. The smaller group experiences the presence of neurological deficits developed during the prenatal or childhood ages. The interactional theory shows that attachment to the parent is at the core of avoiding defiant behavior.
Discuss how child rearing practices may be related to later law-abiding behavior according to theories in this chapter?
Parenting skills significantly influence law-abiding behavior in future. The primary belief is that social control and learning mechanisms significantly influence the behavior of the child. In this case, conventional values of positive behavior are reinforced during positive attachment with the child while deviant practices are shown by the weaker bonds. The two-way street of interaction requires the participation of the parent to teach the child values prosocial skills that will be helpful in their engagement in the society. However, failure to uphold such values will cause negative behavior and little consideration to the laws.
Explain the role of static and dynamic factors in influencing the criminal activity of a person over time.
Static and dynamic risk factors have significant influence on the propensity for criminal activity in an individual over time. These risk factors help criminologists evaluate potential causal factors for committing crime. Static factors are those features in the history of an offender that predict possibility of offending again but are not acquiescent to deliberate intervention. The static factors may include prior arrests and convictions. On the other hand, dynamic risk factors identify are those can probably be changed to prevent incidences of future criminal involvement. These elements may include substance abuse or engagement with negative peers.
