Introduction
Over the past few decades, the use of modern technology in law enforcement has significantly accelerated in various parts of the world. A number of law enforcement agencies are planning and making decisions to acquire and implement new technologies that can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of their work of maintaining law and order. One such technology that is now common in the law enforcement is dash camera, which is an onboard camera that mainly records the viewing through windscreen ( Waddington, Stenson & Don, 2004) . Therefore, the primary objective of this paper is to conduct literature review on the best practices in the criminal justice field on dash cameras. In addition, the paper discusses the benefits, values, and impacts of dash cameras on law enforcement process. The literature review ends with the recommendations on the most beneficial procedure for executing dash cameras on law enforcement.
History of the Use of Dash Cameras on Law Enforcement
The use of video surveillance in maintain law and order can be traced back in 1956 when cameras were mainly utilize to regulate the behaviors of at a traffic lights. However, it was not until 1960 when the pan-tilt cameras were used by the law enforcement agencies to monitor crowds in the UK ( Waddington, Stenson & Don, 2004) . However, the law enforcement agencies in US were slow in implementing in-car cameras on police cruisers. US law enforcement agencies started using dash cameras in early 1960s when after the invention of videotape recording system.
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The use of dash cameras in US became common in 1980 due to Mother Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) when the police was looking for ways of finding necessary evidence to support the conviction of drunk drivers (IACP, 2004). The effectiveness of in-car cameras made the law enforcement agencies to embrace the practice. The use of dash camera in law enforcement was enhanced in 1990s in order to fight war on the use and transportation of illegal drugs. 1999 became the peak of use of dash cameras due to massive allegations of racial biases and profiling by the law enforcement officers while on duty (IACP, 2004). The law enforcement agencies became the center of controversy regarding racial profiling. At the same time, violence and assaults against law enforcement officers was rising. The need to enhance accountability and professionalism in the law enforcement as well as the requirement to safeguards safety of police officers made relevant agencies to encourage massive adoption of dash cameras in police cruisers.
Benefits, Impacts, and Values of Dash Cameras on Police Cruisers
According to one of the recent studies that was carried out by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), the primary benefit of dash cameras is that it changes the behaviors of both civilians and law enforcement officers. About 51% of the people who participated in the study responded that they would change their behaviors if they were aware of the presence of dash cameras on police cruisers (IACP, 2004). Responded argued that dash cameras of police cruisers would make them to behave less violently or aggressively towards a police officers. In terms of filing a petition against police officers, 48% of the participants in the IACP study responded that the presence of dash cameras in police cruiser would not encourage them to file a petition 34% argued that they would be encouraged to lodge a complaint against law enforcement personnel if they detect the presence on in-car camera (IACP, 2004). The findings show that civilians are likely to behave responsibly when apprehended by a police officer when there is dash camera on police car. At the same time, the presence of dash cameras encourages civilians to lodge complaint against police officers when their rights are violated because of the availability of evidence contained in-dash cameras.
The presence of dash cameras make law enforcement officers to behave responsibly, as they are aware that they are under scrutiny. Individuals are likely to adhere to the acceptable behaviors and social boundaries when they are aware they are being watched ( Ariel, Farrar & Sutherland, 2015) . As a result, studies have shown that amounting dash cameras on police cruisers reduce the aggressive behaviors of law enforcement personnel towards civilians or offenders ( Mateescu & Rosenblat, 2015) . Police officers are cautious when they are aware of dash cameras on police cruisers. Consequently, use of dash cameras is beneficial because they make police officers to maintain professionalism and accepted behaviors while discharging their duties, leading to a reduction in civilian complaints against law enforcement agencies and individual officers.
Law enforcement agencies have use the video footage contained dash cameras to critique themselves and enhance their tactics in dealing with situations, leading to better safety techniques and actions (Westphal, 2004). Police officers are able use dash cameras to review how they approached every situation, which helps in improving safety measures. At the same time, by informing offenders that the car has a dash camera, civilians can conform, leading to less aggressive confrontation and improve safety of security personnel. Dash cameras in cruisers improve safety of law enforcement officers.
According to Westphal (2004), dash cameras improve law enforcement agency leadership. Law enforcement agencies and commanders are able to use dash cameras to monitor and review how police officers behave and undertake their duties. The information gathered from dash cameras can be used to enhance supervisory roles and improve on the issues affecting their safety, professionalism, and morale. Close supervisory observation and knowledge can be used as early warnings to police officers and they can be used to identify other problems affecting law enforcement officers. Dash cameras can enhance law enforcement supervision.
Dash cameras can be used to enhance training of police officers on how to effectively discharge their duties (Westphal, 2004). Apart from using dash cameras for self-critique, law enforcement agencies can use dash cameras to acquire useful information materials that can be used in training programs. It is possible for the agencies to prepare lesson on unlikely and extreme situations that are handled by the police. Receiving actual video recording through dash cameras can be used to enhance training of police officers. Therefore, dash cameras have benefits and values that have long-term impact on law enforcement process.
Negative Impact of Dash Cameras in Police Cruisers
Even though many studies have applauded the benefits and positive impacts of dash cameras in police cruisers, recent research showed that they distract police officers while they are discharging their duties. According to the study that was carried out by the IACP in 2002, police officers who participated in the study argued that dash cameras distract their attention and they always find themselves performing for the cameras instead of focusing and addressing the situation (Westphal, 2004). Some of the officers who participated in the study said that striving to place dash cameras in the best possible angles subject then to unsafe positions, enhancing the risks of being injured. Therefore, placing dash cameras in police vehicles make them to be ineffective in playing their roles, as they try to put the best show because they are under scrutiny. The excessive precautions taken by police officer when they are aware of presence of dash camera, in the long run, may interfere with the effectiveness of law enforcement agencies. The distraction can also compromise the safety of law enforcement officers, leading to more injuries.
With lack of proper training and apathy towards the use of dash cameras, law enforcement agencies may become ineffective in achieving their objectives. The more training law enforcement officers receive on how to use dash cameras, the less likely they are to get injured ( Maghan, O'Reilly & Shon, 2002) . Unfortunately, according to the study that was conducted by COPS, 77% of police officers interviewed said they did not receive any training on how to use dash cameras in police cruisers (IACP, 2004). At the same time, they had little knowledge on how to use video recording.
Maghan, O'Reilly and Shon (2002) argued that law enforcement officers are likely to become highly dependent on dash cameras to record and document events instead of mentally retaining information. Over-reliance on dash cameras to collect evidence lead to a decline in interview and note-taking skills among law enforcement officers, which is a problem because dash cameras have limited coverage and scope ( Roy, 2014) . As a result, dash cameras on police cruiser with proper interview and note-taking skills can lead to limited evidence required to make a conviction in a court of law.
Best Practices
In order to enhance the effectiveness of dash camera in police cruiser, law enforcement agencies must be sensitive or take into consideration the techniques of gathering, tracking, reviewing, examining and storing the information and data recorded in the video ( Hsu et al ., 2007) . It is important for law enforcement agencies to come up with quality recording into present necessary evidence required for a conviction of the offender. Therefore, the best practices include evaluating the required video support system, proper management of video evidence, and safe storage of recorded evidence.
Enhancing Video Support System
There are four factors that law enforcement agency should consider when deciding on the video support system. First, it must take into consideration in the dash camera video support. To avoid breakdowns and challenges in coming up with quality video recording, the agency must have a playback as well as devices that are compatible with the dash camera being used in police cruisers. As a result, it is important for the agency to maintain and control a log of videotapes. The agency should have at least one log in very police stations to enhance effectiveness.
Secondly, it is important for the agency to expand its video support. Dash cameras are always designed to support activities taking place within the car and its close proximity ( Hsu et al ., 2007) . However, it is possible for to expand video support by adding playback formats and conversations. At the same time, the analog dash cameras should be digitized to record clear voice and videos. In addition, the agency should enhance the effectiveness of its video support system by incorporating components such as forensic video analysis and agency-wide video support. The agency, therefore, should first make sure that its dash cameras have high capacity and capability to achieve the intended objective.
Proper Management of Video Evidence
According to Hsu et al . (2007) , poor management of audio or video evidence is one of the main challenges facing law enforcement agencies when it comes to the use of digital technologies such as dash cameras. Many defense lawyers have successfully challenged admissibility of video evidence because of the poor chain of custody. Hence, law enforcement agency with effective and strategic ways of purchasing, acquiring and storing of dash cameras. The agency should acquire digital dash cameras that make it easy to record, retrieve, and copy videotapes in order to eliminate labor-intensive process associated with analog cameras. Automated storage systems can easily be used to manage recorded videos and they are also cost-effective. In order to ensure the long-term use and sustainability of dash cameras, law enforcement agencies should buy an open system that can be adjusted with the arrival of new technologies. In the contrary, purchasing proprietary dash cameras may hinder the agency from advancing its technologies.
Deployment and Storage Requirements
To optimize the use limited dash cameras, law enforcement agencies should use incremental deployment techniques instead of equity distribution. The use of equity in the deployment of dash cameras is problematic and poses a lot of challenges, especially when it comes to managing, controlling, and executing new programs. Incremental deployment, on the other hand, is cost-effective while at the same time it gives room for future adjustment and developments. Dash cameras should also have large storage capacity. Studies have shown that dash cameras require a minimum of 500MB to record a one-hour video footage ( Hsu et al ., 2007) . Having a dash camera will ensure that that necessary evidence is collected, leading to conviction. It is important to consider the storage and retention period when deciding on the dash camera storage capacity.
Recommendations
First, it the law enforcement agency should ensure that personnel using dash cameras have necessary knowledge and skills required to operate them without any challenge. Previous studies, especially the one that was conducted by COPS found that many police officers do not know how to operate dash cameras. This hinders the effectiveness of dash cameras and can compromise the safety of officers. Therefore, all officers should undergo at least one-week training on how to use dash cameras. Training should mainly focus on how to adjust dash cameras to capture quality videos and audio recordings. In addition, the training should emphasize on the importance of dash cameras on the safety of officers to give them morale to use them as required. Training should come first before officers are allowed to use dash cameras.
Secondly, the agency should only use digital cameras that use latest technologies and applications. Digital dash cameras will enhance the management of evidence, have large storage capacity, produce quality videos, and faster image processing. The agency can only implement the above best practices if it purchases and uses digital dash cameras. Digital cameras will help in producing necessary evidence required in the court.
Conclusion
The use dash cameras in police cruisers can significantly enhance the effectiveness of law agencies in achieving its objective of maintaining law and order and conducting investigations. They are not only required to ensure accountability and professionalism in the police force, but they also ensure that citizens comply with laws, particularly when they are being apprehended. At the same time, dash cameras boost safety of police officers and enhance their training. However, dash cameras in police cruisers can sometimes lead to distraction of police officers, especially when they have difficulties conforming to acceptable behaviors and actions. Therefore, to enhance the effectiveness of dash cameras, law enforcement agencies should training their personnel and use digital dash cameras.
References
Ariel, B., Farrar, W. A., & Sutherland, A. (2015). The effect of police body-worn cameras on use of force and citizens’ complaints against the police: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of quantitative criminology , 31 (3), 509-535.
Hsu, S. C., Liang, S. F., Fan, K. W., & Lin, C. T. (2007). A robust in-car digital image stabilization technique. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C (Applications and Reviews) , 37 (2), 234-247.
IACP. (2004). The Impact of Video Evidence on Modern Policing. Retrieved from https://www.bja.gov/bwc/pdfs/IACPIn-CarCameraReport.pdf
Meghan, J., O'Reilly, G. W., & Shon, P. C. H. (2002). Technology, policing, and implications of in-car videos. Police Quarterly , 5 (1), 25-42.
Mateescu, A. C., & Rosenblat, A. (2015). Police body-worn cameras. Data & Society Research Institute , 4(3), 1-40.
Roy, A. (2014). On-officer video cameras: Examining the effects of police department policy and assignment on camera use and activation . Arizona State University.
Waddington, P. A., Stenson, K., & Don, D. (2004). In Proportion: Race and Police Stop and Search 1. British journal of criminology , 44 (6), 889-914.
Westphal, L. J. (2004). The in-car camera: value and impact. Police Chief , 71 (8), 59-67.
