Sociology is the scientific study of how groups and societies interact in their specific social settings and can be understood differently based on three theoretical perspectives. Sociology encompasses a diversity of subject matters that range from religion to crime, from the division of social class and race to shared common culture, from state to family, and from a radical change in society to social stability. A unifying factor of these diverse subjects is understanding how consciousness and human action determine the social structures and cultural surroundings. Sociologists emphasize analytical evidence gathering of social life before enriching our comprehension of different social processes. They use varied research methods like conducting large-scale surveys, observing groups of people's everyday lives, analyzing census data, interviewing participant groups, and interpreting historical documents, to mention a few. The research theories and methods used in sociology offer worthwhile insight into social processes that shape social prospects, problems, and human lives in the contemporary world. Having a better understanding of social processes implies that individuals understand the forces that determine their lives' outcomes and personal experiences. The University of North Carolina, Department of Sociology (2020), cites that this phenomenon is referred to as "the sociological imagination" according to C. Wright Mills. This phenomenon is essential in shaping human lives and experiences and academic preparation that helps students lead a rewarding and effective professional life in a complex and changing society. The objectivity of this essay will be to summarize the three theoretical perspectives of sociology, namely; functionalist theory, Marxist/Conflict Theory, and Symbolic Interactionist Theory, based on how they were developed. The essay will also select a theoretical approach that best describes human interaction among Caribbean countries, including Jamaica. The paper will further critique/analyze the three theories mentioned based on the techniques applied to arrive at them, strengths and weaknesses, and validity before summarizing and concluding on the essay's content.
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Sociological Theories
Sociological theories offer various perspectives with which our social world can be viewed. A perspective is referred to as the way of viewing something. It integrates with theory to explain and answer a particular phenomenon using either principles or propositions. These theories address the same problem but using different perspectives. The three sociological theories are summarized below.
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Functionalist Theory - The functionalist theory, also referred to as functionalism, originated from two major revolutions in the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries. The first revolution to occur was the French Revolution in 1789, whose intense blood terror and violence shook the whole of Europe. Intellectuals in Europe feared about the crumbling social order, and aristocracy feared that the revolution would spread far beyond the epicenter. In the nineteenth century, the Industrial revolution reinforced these concerns. The impacts of the revolutions were experienced in Europe and America, where people decided to abandon their farms in rural settings to settle close to factories where they could get employment. As cities grew, the living conditions of many people began to deteriorate. These conditions included overcrowding, crime, and poverty. European intellectuals responded promptly with written perceptions that could explain this breakdown of social order. There was a need for a strong society that could eliminate this unorderly social change. Among these fruitful writings were those of a French scholar, Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), who is known for developing the Functionalist Theory and founding sociology as a study field. Durkheim adopted the proposal of other intellectuals, which explained that there a strong society was needed. He mentioned that human desires often culminate in chaos, the importance for society to limit such desires through social integration and socialization (Durkheim, 1952). Socialization helps individuals learn and agree to society's rules, while social integration allows people to respect the preset rules that limit our chaotic desires.
Today's functional adopts the human body analogy as a model of comprehending society while agreeing with Durkheim and other intellectual posits. Our body organs serve vital purposes in maintaining health and stability. The way we understand the body, its organs, and functions is the same way we can understand society's institutional processes to foster stability. In the same line, functionalism stress on the vital roles of social institutions like religion, education, and family to stabilize society. Like the conservative views of intellectuals from which functionalism grew, it is notable that the phenomenon is skeptical of major social upheaval and rapid change. The analogy of the human body plays a crucial role in understanding this skepticism. For example, if one breaks their thigh bone, they are unlikely to walk properly shortly afterward, while slower body changes like reducing hair growth that results in a bald head are less fatal and normal. According to the functionalist perspectives, rapid societal changes are troublesome. Based on the evolution theory, the human body changed to its current form sustainably and safely, the same way society has done. Sudden changes deter stability. The theory also suggests other controversial posits like the importance of undesired changes. For example, the increase in criminal activity in a neighborhood or country consequently increases the number of enrolments into law enforcement, correctional institutions, and the criminal justice system, which implies that more jobs are created to boost the economic status. It is similar in a scenario where a country has many poor people (Gans, 1972). Poverty is undesirable for a country and its people, but it motivates individuals to seek jobs, which would not be done if the poor conditions did not force poor people into job-hunting.
Marxist Theory – Also called the conflict theory, this perspective is the exact opposite of the functionalist theory, but ironically shares the same origin, courtesy of Karl Marx (1818-1865) and his assistant Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). These two scholars disapproved of the perspectives posited that industrialization was the cause of mass violence in Europe. Rather than fear about the destruction of social order represented by prevalent violence, they believed that poverty, capitalism, and misery could be eliminated through revolutionary violence (Marx & Engels, 1962). According to Marx and Engels, ownership of production means (factories, tools, and capital) defined the two classes divided by society. In a society that practices capitalism, production means are owned by the ruling class, unlike the working class, who are oppressed in the firms and factories of the ruling class under tight schedules, low salaries, minimal benefits, among other challenges. The difference ensues in a conflict of interest between the working class and the ruling class. The working class will strive to gain supremacy like the affluent class to create an egalitarian society, while the latter will strive to maintain their positions at the top. Marx and Engel posit that revolution is inevitable because of the structural contradictions found in a capitalistic society. Since profit is the main objective in a capitalistic society, the rich will maintain the working class's wages as low as possible to increase the profit margin. Capitalism eventually leads to the rise of class consciousness among workers. Ultimately, a revolt results from the class consciousness among workers, which targets to end the rich's oppression and can be fulfilled through activism.
Marx's perspective about the conflict that arises from the inequality in class within society is a replica of the conflict theory today. This theory posits that different social positions within society result in different interests among different groups. Consequently, the views on the importance of social issues also differ. Some versions attribute social disparities to gender, ethnicity, and race, while other versions stick to Marx and Engel's perspective that root social division to different economic structures. Precisely, the conflict theory posits that the ongoing inequality is due to various parts of society, unlike the functionality theory that stresses about the various societal institutions and how they contribute to the continuing societal stability.
The Feminist theory, which borrows from the Marxist theory, has developed since the 1970s. In this theory, the conflict is specifically considered gender inequality, emphasizing Engel, and Marx's perspective. There exist many versions of the feminist theory, but the prevalent one posits that women are an inferior sex with lower standings in the social life, economic life, and politics (Lorber, 2010). Marxist feminists argue that inequality in gender arose from capitalism, which forced women to depend on men. In contrast, liberal feminists believe that gender inequality is a result of the variations in socialization. Conclusively, in its diverse forms, the Marxist theory views social inequalities as the cause of social problems. These social problems are a result of race diversity, social class, economic status, gender, to mention a few. Due to these societal flaws, the theory believes that there is a need to address these challenges through fundamental social change.
Symbolic Interactionism Theory – This theory focuses on individuals' interactions and their interpretation of the same interactions. This theory's roots lie in the works of early 1900s social psychologists, philosophers, and American sociologists, whose interest was in human action and consciousness. Herbert Blumer (1969) built on previous perspectives about symbolic interactionist theory that argue that interactionists construct their roles as they interact with one another rather than follow those set by society. As individuals interact, they negotiate about their terms of the situation to customize their new roles and rules that favor both parties. In doing so, these individuals heavily rely on gestures and words to reach a mutual understanding. A familiar symbol in this scenario is the shaking of hands, which is used as a form of greeting to imply mutual friendship among people who do so in the US and most of the other societies. It also indicates that an individual is polite, friendly, and anyone should feel comfortable around them. To understand the implications of symbolic interaction, when an individual refuses to shake hands with another person, it is perceived as a sign of insult or dislike. The interactions that follow such a symbol are often cold or strained, unlike when two individuals shake hands before proceeding with any further interactions. According to symbolic interactionists, it is possible to achieve social order because individuals can learn and assimilate various symbols and apply their implications to multiple situations. For example, suppose someone is accustomed to sticking out their arm to greet the other and visit a society interpreted as a threatening gesture. In that case, this individual will learn not to use the earlier know gesture.
This theory views the interaction of individuals as the source of social problems. There are two distinct respects in which these interactions matter. First, socially problematic behaviors, for example, drug use and crime, are learned from individuals who engage in such acts, especially those we interact with. We learn special techniques and behaviors and justify our actions by seeing people close to us do it. The other respect in which interactions matter is learning to perceive social problems based on how other people we interact with perceive the same issues. Since symbolic interactionism focuses on how social problems are perceived, it is closely related to social constructionism. Both perspectives posit that social problems are subjective. Thus, the symbolic interactionist theory reminds us that perceptions are not to be ignored in explaining the causes of social problems like the objective reality is perceived.
Symbolic Interactionist Theory in Jamaica and other Caribbean Countries
Upon careful assessment, I concluded that symbolic interactionist theory suits the way humans interact in Jamaica and a larger part of the Caribbean region. Jamaican's are renowned for their diverse culture, ranging from the use of their symbolic flag, musical ascent, and symbolic gestures. This section will highlight some of the symbolic gestures that have gained approval not only locally but also to the rest of the world, including the Caribbean region. Jamaicans are famed for their use of fist bumps as a greeting mode, implication of triumph, and approval of various aspects (Fleur, 2014). Rather than using the famous handshake when greeting one another, they will fold their knuckles and simultaneously bump their fisted hands into one another. This implies that these people have a good rapport or have no underlying strains that may hinder a flawless conversation or interaction after that. Besides, the fist bump may be used to imply that individuals have mutually agreed on maybe a deal or something. This cultural practice has taken root in other Caribbean countries who will be spotted practicing the same as a greeting mode among other uses. In sporting functions, athletes from countries like Cuba and Nicaragua will bump their fists when they are happy after a win. Through the social internationalist theory, it evident from this assimilation of symbolic gestures among countries within the same region that interactions can influence other people to learn new behaviors. The closeness of these countries in the Caribbean region means that individuals can easily travel across borders and learn or pass the gesture or other symbolic characteristics to people they interact with.
Analysis/Critique of the three Sociological Theories
The main weakness of the functionalist theory is that it cannot explain social change adequately. Another problem is that this theory is circular in nature, and somewhat repetitive behavioral patterns are presumed to serve a purpose. However, it is professed that these behaviors have a function because they are redundant. Besides, the theory tends to ignore the exploitation and conflict stressed by Marx. However, the approach also has the following strengths; society and family are viewed harmoniously. It explains how different parts of society are interrelated to ensure society's well-being and illustrates how social institutions can work in two diverse levels to meet the needs of both society and individuals.
The Marxist theory is highly criticized for its focus on conflict rather than societal stability. Besides, most social structures have grown to actualize stability rather than conflict, as the Marxist theory suggests. Many assumptions are also made with regard to subordination in the lower class as opposed to how it is. The theory has strengths also like; it helps us understand the oppression that lower-class individuals undergo in the hands of the rich in terms of low pay, among other aspects.
The symbolic internationalist theory focuses on using symbols to interpret human interactions, but some symbols may be interpreted differently or incorrectly by various people. Symbolic interactions may create difficulty in quantifying things. It is less applicable to large-scale social structures. On the other hand, the theory holds some strengths, including offering insight into small-scale interactions among humans, considering the social environment where learning occurs and acknowledging that the perception of reality is changing and variable.
Conclusion
In conclusion, sociology is the scientific study of how groups and societies interact in their specific social settings. It can be best understood using the three sociological theories: the functionalist theory, the Marxist theory, and the symbolic internationalist theory. The functionalist theory sees society as a structure that works collaboratively to meet both individual and societal goals. Progressive evolution is more desirable than abrupt change because the former fosters stability and adaptability while the latter creates an environment of instability. The conflict/Marxist theory focuses on the causes of inequality in society, ranging from face, economic status, social class, and race. Finally, the symbolic internationalist theory posits that symbols like gestures can define how the interaction process among humans. They are not to be ignored because they may imply a strained relationship of a vibrant one based on the way they are interpreted. The essay also highlights the prevalent theory among Caribbean countries, including Jamaica, and based on my assessment, and it turns out to be symbolic internationalism. Specifically, fist bumps to greet one another, implying triumph and showing approval, have spread from Jamaica to other Caribbean countries like Cuba and Nicaragua. The essay also highlights the strengths and weaknesses toward the end, like the superficial similarity in that no theory has universal approval based on the difference in applicability.
References
Durkheim, É. (1952). Suicide (J. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). New York, NY: Free Press.
(Original work published 1897).
Gans, H. J. (1972). The positive functions of poverty. American Journal of Sociology, 78 , 275–
289.
Lorber, J. (2010). Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics . New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and Method . Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Fleur, N. (2014, July 19). In The World Of Global Gestures, The Fist Bump Stands Alone. Retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2014/07/19/331809186/in-the-world-of-global-gestures-the-fist-bump-stands-alone
