Time Perspective and Orientation
Cross-cultural differences in perceptions of time and punctuality are phenomena that have been extensively researched. A recent study by Sircova, van de Vijver, Osin et al. (2015) on time perspectives across 24 countries established that five hierarchical profiles of time perspective exist – present-oriented, future-oriented, balanced, negative, and moderately fatalistic. These findings are derived from Hofstede cultural dimension model, which is a cross-cultural communication framework for establishing causality between culture and values of societal members and behavior through factor analysis; and the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) scale that accounts for 36 variables of cross-cultural differences. The rigor of the methodology employed leads one to argue that the findings are representative of the trend across cultures.
The cultural differences in perspective and orientation of time are known to have far-reaching implications, especially for multi-national teams. According to Arman and Adair (2012), team dynamics and effectiveness may be affected due to cultural differences in perception of time. For instance, Sircova, van de Vijver, Osin et al. (2015) established that ZTPI similarities in time perception and orientation between the French and Russians enabled them to work as a team. However, for women, who were established to have higher time orientation in comparison to men in relation to past positive and present fatalistic profiles, achieving such an outcome may be a challenge. Arman and Adair (2012) posited that it is necessary to develop a comprehensive approach that accounts for temporal diversity in multinational teams, including all factors such as power distance and individualism or collectivism that influence cultural perspectives and orientation of time.
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Summarized Findings of Research Article on Time and Punctuality
Cross-cultural differences driving perspective and orientation of time can best be understood through Lo and Houkamau (2012) article, “Exploring the Cultural Origins of Differences in Time Orientation between European New Zealanders and Māori.” The two communities have contrasting cultural clusters based on their origins of Anglo-American and South Pacific, which play a significant role in their perception of time. The two communities are considered to have notable differences in the dimensions of the clock against event time, past, present, or future orientations, and punctuality.
According to Lo and Houkamau (2012), the differences in perspective and orientation are an outcome of the differences between the Maori and Pakeka. The Maori perspectives are strongly founded on their tradition and history, to which religion, spirituality, and communism are essential components. However, they have been influenced immensely through colonization and interaction with the Pekeka. On the other hand, Pakeka culture is viewed through an ethnocentric eye because they have no unique tradition and their influence on perspective and orientation of time by the acculturated Maori has no strong foundation. Lo and Houkamau (2012) posited that the Pakeka culture comprises mostly of values from the British settlers who colonized New Zealand. The findings indicate the possibility of cross-cultural transfer of perspectives and orientations of time, but such a strategy is ineffective in the modern multinational teams.
Personal Reflections
Being on time can be interpreted based on one’s cultural perspective, but one can argue that it means availing oneself within the stipulated time bracket – not too early, but never late. While lateness may be a put-off for many people regardless of their culture, punctuality may have a whole different meaning. Some individuals consider being on time as arriving minutes to the schedule and others right on schedule. Others may find very early arrival as an inconvenience. Most people are likely to have experienced a time conflict with someone from a different culture. In college, discussions and other group assignments are the epitome of cross-cultural time conflicts among students. Racial slurs have been reported when arguments about time and punctuality erupt among students from different cultural backgrounds.
References
Arman, G., & Adair, C. K. (2012). Cross-cultural differences in perception of time: Implications for multinational teams. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , 21 (5), 657-680.
Lo, K. D., & Houkamau, C. (2012). Exploring the Cultural Origins of Differences in Time Orientation between European New Zealanders and Māori. NZJHRM, 12 (3), 105-123.
Sircova, A., van de Vijver, F. J., Osin, E., Milfont, T. L., Fieulaine, N., Kislali-Erginbilgic, A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2015). Time perspective profiles of cultures. In Time Perspective Theory; Review, Research and Application (pp. 169-187). Springer International Publishing.
