Effects of Social Media on Police

Abstract

In the recent past, the development of technology has significantly impacted the society in both positive and negative ways. Traditionally, the duties and responsibilities of the policies officers in dealing with criminal justices was highly respected, and the public received news regarding their actions thought the right channel of communication. However, this has changed in the recent past, due to the increased use of mobile equipment to capture police officers while carrying out their duties. It is unfortunate that the captured videos and pictures end up in the social media platform where people view and comment on the video clips and pictures. Besides, this the individuals posting the videos or pictures have little or no information about what happened before the incidence got to where it was at the time of taking the picture (In Mitchell et al., 2017). This ends up misleading the general public and the role of the policies as well influencing the general public to make an uninformed decision due to inadequate data. As a result, the constant capturing and sharing of police incidences with inadequate data have adversely affected the general public views about the police as well as mobilizing people to act against what the social media pictures and videos portray as police brutality (In Milstein,15), which in turn is likely to lead to civil unrest of the nation. The police officers should be allowed to effectively carry out their duties and responsibilities without the fears of being captured in the social media which threatens their life due to a negative attitude towards the police officers. Importantly, the increased cases of capturing police incidences can lead to police negligence which poses a security threat to the nation. 

Annotated Bibliography

Callanan, V. J., & Rosenberger, J. S. (2011). Media and public perceptions of the police: examining the impact of race and personal experience. Policing & Society, 21(2), 167-189.

The article focuses on how the use of social media in broadcasting police related incidences affect the police officers performance- confidence, use of force, as well as police fairness. Due to the negative image of the police which has widely spread all over the world due to the spread of pictures and videos indicating police are harassing civilians, the effects have adversely affected the police performance –confidence as they are afraid of being captured which will, in turn, damage their image. Additionally, the police have increased the use of force to protect themselves from being captured whereby they harass or take away the smartphone or camera. Lastly, matters regarding the impact of capturing police officers incidences and spreading them on social media have been viewed to be fair to the whites but unfair to the blacks and the people of color. 

Cordner, G. W. (2016). Police administration. Routledge..

In the book, the public information chapter indicates that the general public has the right to acquire information from the police including crime news, media relations, provision of data regarding crime prevention and victimization as well as being informed of important features in the police offices and program. But the increasing use of social media has increasingly victimized the police officers which in turn in adversely impacting on their performance due to demonization and fear of the public. As a result, police officers are forced to use excessive force which in turn is unethical and violets the citizen's rights to stop the public from capturing police incidences, this can in the past have had adverse effects on the relationship between the police officers and the civilians which pose a significant threat to social order.

Denef, S., Bayerl, P. S., & Kaptein, N. A. (2013, April). Social media and the police: tweeting practices of British police forces during the August 2011 riots. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems (pp. 3471-3480). ACM.

The article analyses the 2011 situation whereby two departments of police officers London Metropolitan Police (MET) and the Greater Manchester Police (GMP) engaged themselves in social media communication which in turn lead to different ways in which the situation was controlled. Additionally, the article also focused on the effects of social media on the role of police officers in society. The article indicates that the social media can be used to reinforce as well as to damage the public perception of police officers. Adverse effects of social media on the role of police officers arise from misconception and misjudgment provided by inadequate data regarding a police incidence in the social media.

Gaines, L. K. (2017). Criminal justice in action: The core. Place of publication not identified: Cengage Learning

When focusing on problem-oriented policing, the chapter states that in the recent past a culture has been created which aims at bringing down the police. The chapter indicates that with the increasing use of social media on the day to day operations on a nation, the policies ate disadvantaged as the social media is being used to develop a negative attitude towards them. Additionally, based on the individual's experiences discusses\d in the book, the majority of the police officers feel frustrated due to public mistrust which has resulted from social media data. Additionally, the police officers also indicate that the civilians do not consider the threats that they face as they protect their nation. Most of the police officers indicated that on several occasions they almost died when dealing with criminals and when such videos and pictures are taken to the social media it turns out that the police officers used excess powers or had misconduct. 

Grossmith, L., Owens, C., Finn, W., Mann, D., Davies, T., & Baika, L. (2015). Police, camera, evidence: London's cluster randomized controlled trial of Body Worn Video. London, United Kingdom: College of Policing and the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC).

The article focuses on Body Worn Video (BWV) which have in the past been effective in criminal justice as well as fair justice for police officers who have been captured in a photograph or video that demonstrated police misconduct without evaluating the predetermination factors before the capturing of the video. The article indicates that the police officers have been aligned in court resulting from evidence obtained from photographs and videos taken by the public. 

IFIP Conference on e-Business, e-Services, and e-Society, In Dwivedi, Y. K., In Mäntymäki, M., In Ravishankar, M. N., In Janssen, M., In Clement, M., In Slade, E. L., ... In Simintiras, A. C. (2016). Social media: The good, the bad, and the ugly: 15th IFIP WG 6.11 Conference on e-Business, e-Services, and e-Society, I3E 2016, Swansea, UK, September 13-15, 2016, Proceedings.

The book focuses on the growing use of the internet and mobile technology to spread information which might affect the captured individuals either positively or negatively. The book indicates that the continued use of the internet to access social media platforms such as facebook and twitter provide the users with information that is not adequate to enable them to make an informed decision. The book provides an example of a picture of a police shooting a black civilian which was posted by an unconscious individual, and the post was read, shared and reshared by many people in the world. In this context without explaining the cause of action, the public was demanding for justice for the black person. On a boarder view, the book indicates that such incidences demotivate and build a negative image on the law enforcers.

In Bwalya, K. J., & In Mutula, S. M. (2015). Digital solutions for contemporary democracy and government. 

The book indicates that despite the fact social media can be used by the police officers to acquire adequate data regarding criminals as they communicate through the social media, the same strategy can be applied by criminals to counter police officers efforts in dealing with crime as a result of uncontrolled capturing and posting of police officers incidences. The book suggests that with the increasing rate of use of capturing police incidences on social media, a lot of information that should not be made public is availed and made accessible to the general public, therefore, request for appropriate strategies to secure police from being captured carrying out their duties. 

In Information Resources Management Association, (2016). Biometrics: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications. Richey: Information Science Reference.

One of the chapters in the book is that which focuses on smartphones and the media. The chapter highlights that videos and photographs footage taken by using a smartphone are more reliable sources of information more than the professional recording which involves editing. As a result of this feature, photographs and videos taken by a smartphone are considered truth and reality without focusing on the cause of the actions. As a result, the pictures and the videos provide misleading information as the viewers on the social media are not informed of the context of the pictures and videos.

In Mervio, M. M. (2015). Management and participation in the public sphere. Ashley, PA: Information Science Reference, an imprint of IGI Global.

The book focuses on how policies can be used to regulate the public in numerous matters. In chapter eight under the topic ‘before smartphone and social media'', the book focuses on how unregulated use of social media and smartphones to capture numerous moments is adversely affecting the society when compared to the era when there were no smartphones nor social media. The chapter categorically indicates that the police have the right to provide information to the media, and on the other hand, the public should be keen on what it captures and how the footages are used as this can adversely affect the police role as well as a nation's security.

In Milstein, C. (2015). Taking sides: Revolutionary solidarity and the poverty of liberalism. Oakland, CA: AK Press

The book focuses on the conflict and division between debates on matters addressed by current movements who protest against police violence and white supremacy. In this case, the book highlight differences occasion when the police officers were captured using violence on protestors. One of the instances that have been addressed in the December 14, demonstration from Berkely to Oakland where a police posed while holding a gun. For most police officers they feel threatened to act by their responsibilities due to fears of being captured and the consequences that arise from the unexplained videos and pictures. Additionally, the book also focuses on the whites’ supremacy, where most police officers are captured handling people of color, which in turn leads to viewing the police department as a social injustice institution oppresses the people of color.

In Mitchell, C., In Dorian, E., & IGI Global, (2017). Police psychology and its growing impact on modern law enforcement.

One of the topics addressed in the book is social climate change and the modern police department. The chapter indicates that the police officers and police departments should be protected from excess exposure to the public through social media as it will damage the police officer's reputation as well as that of the department. Despite changes that might take place after a police officer is captured engaging in an unethical practice it is essential to indicate that such images damage the police department as a whole which in turn leads to lack of trust with how the police officers carry out their duties and responsibilities which might further lead to social disorder.

Jefferis, E., Butcher, F., & Hanley, D. (2011). Measuring perceptions of police use of force. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 12(1), 81-96.

The article measures the general view of the public in using force, and indicate that due to unregulated social media there exist an inherently biased perception on the general public in matters relating to police use of forcing in arresting criminals. The article has documented a survey conducted on the public to determine why they are biased regarding police use of force. The majority of the participants reasoning was associated with videos and photographs shared on social media platforms that demonstrate police were harassing a criminal, yet the participant does not understand what transpired before, the photograph was taken.

Miller, L. S., Hess, K. M., & Orthmann, C. H. (2014). Community policing: partnerships for problem-solving. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. 

The book focuses on the conflict between the media and the police and recognizes that both bodies are important. However, the book emphasizes that there is need to regulate what the public displays in any form of media, TV, radio, or even the social media as it might lead to security problems. In the event where people capture police engaging in their incidences such as dealing with terrorism or criminals, the criminals might use the pictures and videos shared on the social media platform to develop strategies that counter the police. When the public is capturing the pictures it is not sensitive on what to post or what not to post, which in turn provides the criminals with the opportunity to learn some of the police tactics which will be used against the police and as a result in increased crimes, which might encourage the people to demonstrate for more protection from the police officers.

Reeves, J. (2017). Citizen spies: The long rise of America's surveillance society. New York University Press.

The crowdsourcing resistance presents a case of police officers who were captured spraying teargas to students who were protesting, and at the end of the day, the two police officers that were captured were subjected to a two months leave. After the left one of the police officer was fired which lead to the loss of his job as a law enforcer. Categorically, the chapter states that the inappropriate use of smartphones to capture police incidences can adversely impact on police activities. The police are likely to become reluctant to crimes as they might fear to lose their jobs or demotion. This will, in turn, lead to social problems which might force people to engage in civil unrest to demand more protection from the police officers. The book states that the general public has the power to demand action against a police action captured in a video or picture shared in the social media which will progressively affect the capacity of police acting on criminals which pose social threats regarding increased crimes.

Sarkar, R. (2013). The new soldier in the age of asymmetric conflict. New Delhi: Vij Books India.

The book emphasizes that social media can be used in their way either for the positive or negative purpose. A good example in the book to reflect how social media was used to cause social unrest in August in 2011 in London, Birmingham, Bristol and in the city of Manchester. Protesters experienced in these cities resulted from a civilian capturing a police officer shooting, which in turn lead to demonstration and destructions in the city. The book further indicates that capturing police officers in their line of duties provides the criminals with adequate data which is used against the police officers.

Surette, R. (2014). Media, crime, and criminal justice. Australia: Wadsworth.

The book focuses on the role of media in crime and criminal justices. It states that media plays an important role in creating social information on matters regarding crime and criminal justice. Despite this, the book indicates that the media as the sole source of social information adversely impact on the people's views on how the police offer handle crime and criminal justice. Additionally, the book indicates that social media has negatively impacted on the society's social construction on matters that regards crime and criminal justice.

Trottier, Daniel & Fuchs, C. (2015). Social media, politics and the state: protests, revolutions, riots, crime. Place of publication not identified: Routledge.

The book indicates that the uncontrolled spread of police officers related incidents on the social media by the civilians is negatively impacting the police officers duties and responsibilities. Additionally, capturing police officers, incidences have also been viewed as a driving force towards increased racial discrimination. Since most of the police officers are white and most of the incidences captured involve police officers shooting or handling a black civilian, it has been used politically, to demonstrate the social injustices that the people of race face as well as depicting the police officers as resist. Additionally, the book provides data indicating that majority of the criminals are blacks when compared with the whites, and Hispanics. 

Turvey, B. E., & Crowder, S. (2013). Ethical Justice: Applied issues for criminal justice students and professionals. Oxford: Elsevier Academic Press.

The book evaluates the ethical issues that apply to both the law enforcers and the general public in numerous matters. One of the chapter focuses on the personal use of cell phone technology and social media. The concerns addressed in the chapter include the role of police in maintaining privacy when interacting with the citizens but on the other hand the law does not offer the law enforcers the privacy protection. The chapter indicates that the civilians can use their cell phone to record a police officer call, capture a moment as well as video record the moment which might be used against the police officers. The chapter suggests the development of a press scrutiny regulate the public broadcast on police incidences on social media, which will, in turn, allow the police to be ethical and continue to be productive in their job without public restrictions.

Victor, J. L., & Naughton, J. (2011). Criminal Justice 08/09. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill Contemporary Learning Series.

Based on the article that focused on ethics and criminal justice, the book indicates that the act of public capturing police officers when carrying out their duties have in the past been used against the police officers leading to a negative attitude and opinion on police conduct. It has been highlighted that for most of the people who capture the pictures and the videos they are viewed to seek public attention as well as financial gains as posting police misconduct clips and picture sales more than posting police officers ethically carrying out their dues. In this case, public capturing of police officers have been viewed as biased and negatively affecting the public opinion on police conduct. 

Wall, T., & Linnemann, T. (2014). Staring down the state: Police power, visual economies, and the "war on cameras." Crime, Media, Culture, 10(2), 133-149.

The article indicates that the US policy allows the civilians to take photographs and videos of police officers on duties, but this has in the recent past been hindered by police officers who smash or delete the video or even harass the citizen while trying to protect his or her image. As a result of such cases can lead to social unrest while the public demonstrates over their rights, which will also lead to the firing of police officers who will be found guilty. As a result, the nation is likely to face law enforcers shortage with will pose a security threat to the nation.

Introduction

One of the most important departments of any nation is the police department as it plays an important role in protecting the nation as well as enforcing the law in the nation. Besides, the significant role that the police play in endangering their lives as they protect the citizens, the police officers are still subjected to a negative opinion of the general public. The right has significantly shaped one of the major contributing factors towards negative attitude on the role of police officers in the society that the US Constitution provide to its citizens about their interaction with the police officers (Turvey & Crowder, 2013). The US Constitution provides a right for the civilians to capture videos and photographs of police officers while on duty. However, the constitution is not explicit on what pictures and videos should be arrest, which in turn has led to the problems that the police officers are facing due to civilians capturing and sharing the pictures and video footage on the social media platforms (Jefferis et al., 2011). It is unfortunate that the Constitution allows the citizens to capture police related incidences without necessary considering the context of a situation. As a result, the pictures and videos captured and spread in the social media with little or no adequate data, are negatively impacting on the day to day roles and lives of the police officers which might lead to social disorder as well as negative image of the police officers and the police department as a whole (Callanan & Rosenberger, 2011). Some of the effects of capturing police in their line of duty without clearly understanding the situation are discussed below. 

Police Demoralization

Fear of Damaging Police and Police Department Image

The right of citizens to capture and record police incidences poses a threat to the motivation of the police to continue working as it is required of them with the aim of protecting their image as well as that of the police department as a whole (Gaines, 2017). It is unfortunate that the civilians always capture moments that demonstrate the police officers using excessive force or engaging in misconduct which is not always actual as the civilians do not take the time to understand the situation (Denef et al., 2013). As a result, some of the police officers might refrain from actively or using force where necessary in an attempt to protect their image. Additionally, it is important to indicate that most of the police incidences that are widely shared are always when the police officers are in the wrong (Gaines, 2017). The public fails to appreciate how the police officers risk their lives while protecting them and the nation as a whole which in turn demoralizes the police officers from working hard. Literature indicates that the policemen feel frustrated when they escape being killed on several occasions and when captured fighting the criminals they are victimized and turns out to be on the wrong (Denef et al., 2013). It has also been noted that despite the fact that a single police officer might be subjected to a compulsory leave or firing after being captured in photographs or videos in the social media, the negative view of the police department as a whole takes long to gain and win the citizen's trust. As a result, most people prefer and do not trust the police officers, hence, do not report some of the crimes that they experience which in turn poses a challenge of increased crime rate within a society which in nature is a social disorder.

Fear of Losing One's Job

Capturing police officers in their line of duty without understanding the context of the situation before capturing the photo have in the past adversely affected the police officers regarding securing their jobs. Once a police officer is captured engaging in what the public assumes to be misconduct and excessive use of force, the police officer risks his or her job (Cordner, 2016). As already indicated most of the information that quickly spread on social media platforms is when a police officer is assumed or viewed to be using excess power or while engaging in misconduct. In this case, the general public can engage in demonstrations or social disorder to demand the firing of a capture police officer (Grossmith, et al., 2015). In the past, some police officers have lost their jobs as a rest of appearing in video and photograph footages on social media that demonstrated their misconduct. In an attempt to refrain from losing their jobs, a good percentage of police officers find it same to act moderately which in turn reduces their productivity in their role and responsibilities in enforcing the law (Miller et al., 2014). Additionally, since most of the police officers have experienced the effects of being captured on videos and photographs taken by the public without inquiring about the situation, the police officers feel demotivated to engage in similar activities which might also adversely impact their career, hence, becoming reluctant which is a threat to the society as it will create more crime opportunities. 

Clear Understanding of Police Activities by Terrorist

In most of the cases, the public captures the police officers incidences and post them to the social site without editing the pictures or the video recording which in turn provide the terrorist with adequate information regarding police operation (IFIP Conference on e-Business et al., 2016). Based on the already existing literature, it is evidence that most of the public use smartphones to capture police incidences and since they are not professionals, they do not edit the capture data, which in turn feeds the terrorist with some of the essential data that the police would prefer to remain private for the police department. Despite the constitutional obligation for the police department to provide the media with necessary information regarding crime, police programs as well as crime protection approaches, the police department is selective on the nature of the information that is provided to the professional editors (Cordner, 2016). Criminals use social media platforms to research about police activities as well as planning their crimes, therefore, providing data that is not edited poses a threat to increased crime rates. Additionally, it is through such footages that the criminals able-able to understand police operations and techniques which the terrorist use against the police officers. In such a case, the duties and responsibilities of the police officers are at risk as well as their lives as the terrorist can inappropriately use social media to work with the police officers. Additionally sharing information that is not edited on the social media by the public also increases the chances of terrorist hacking and using individual police or a police department system as their attention might be shifted to handling the misconduct addressed in the photograph or video (IFIP Conference on e-Business et al., 2016).

Decreasing Police-Performance Confidence

The era of increased use of technology and mobile tools to capture police in their line of duty as allowed by the constitution have adversely impacted on the police confidence while carrying out their duties and responsibilities. The increasing use of mobile phones to capture the police activities is slowly interfering with the day- to -day operations of the police officers (In Mervio, 2015). The social media is significantly interfering with the duties and responsibilities of the police officers in law enforcement. As a result, police feel under-qualified and under pressure to meet the general public way of thinking which in turn hinders the degree of confidence for the police officers to carry out their roles. Additionally, the police officers have in the past been subjected to humiliation resulting from public demand to act on a police capture in a video or a photograph, as a result, these impacts are psychologically affecting the police officers self-concept and confidence in executing their roles and responsibilities (In Bwalya & In Mutula, 2015). It is also important to indicate that the police officers have suffered psychological effect which results from social media influence on their duties which in turn have affected how the police officers handle crime and terrorist. The psychological torture of seeing a police officer being fired for due to public demand which is based on inadequate evidence as portrayed in the videos and photographs. The pressure in the social media is mounting for most police officers, and the constant worry that they are the next victims is significantly and adversely impacting on their performance-confidence (Turvey & Crowder, 2013).

Promoting Social Inequalities

Promoting Social Injustice Based on Individual's Color

Social inequality in a different institution in the nation has been one of the persistent problems that have adversely affected the American society. Despite the war against social inequalities and development of policies that declared discrimination of people based on color as illegal, the US society is still subjected to social inequalities. It is unfortunate that a good percentage of the criminals in the US are the blacks when compared to the number of criminals who are whites and Hispanics (Trottier et al., 2015). However, despite these statistics, the police department has for the longest time possible been overlooked as an institution that encourages inequalities in social justice. The situation has been made worse by the increasing use of public using mobile tools to capture police in action, and in most cases, it appears a white police officer shooting or arresting a black person (Reeves, 2017). When such data is shared on the social platforms with little or no supporting information, then it depicts how the police officers as law enforcers as using the law to promote social injustices (In Information Resources Management Association, 2016). From the past, it has been recorded that the people of color have been suffering from social injustices, which is further made worse by the unexplained photographs and videos on the social media. As a result, movements that support social equality might negatively use these photographs against the police officers who will, in turn, lead to demonstration demanding for equal rights for the blacks leading to civil unrest (Trottier et al., 2015).

Increasing Police Use of Force

Using Force to Stop the Public from Capturing Their Actions

The use of smartphones to capture police officers on their lone of duty has affected police functioning. In today's society, the policies officers in several locations have been captured harassing or even destroying a phone that was being used to capture the police activity (Wall & Linnemann, 2014). Despite the fact that the act is wrong as the citizens are allowed by the constitution to capture police in progress when working, the police offers feel offended and fear that such videos might ruin their career and therefore, the police resolve in protecting themselves my using excessive force which is unethical according to the police code of conduct. The general public is to blame for the excessive police use of force in stopping protestors as well as handling protestors who try to capture the police activities (Wall & Linnemann, 2014). As a result, of the increased brutality to the civilians, the civilians might engage in social disorder to protect against the police use of force which will, in turn, affect the stability of the national security as well as political and economic activities.

Using Force to Protect Themselves from being Harmed

The daily life of the police officers poses a threat to their life. While enforcing the law, the police officers are likely to face opposition, hence, the need to protect themselves. The duties and responsibilities of the police officers endanger their lives, and the police officers are always forced to protect their lives when dealing with criminals who might harm or kill them (In Mervio, 2015). Due to the increasing use of the social media against the police officers, the policers officers are in the recent past found themselves engaging in conflicts that result in mob justice against the police officers, and therefore, the police officers are forced to in appropriate apply force while dealing with the mob or criminals. Social media is one of the contributing factors as to why the police officers use force in protecting their lives as well as their careers. Such incidences pose a risk to the society has it can lead to social disorder and inappropriate use of social media to fight the police officers (Sarkar, 2013).

Negative Concept on Police Role

Police Viewed as Oppressors and Unethical

The spread of police incidences on the social media has negatively impacted on the relationship between the civilians and the police officers (In Milstein, 15). In this case, the social media have created a strained relationship between the two parties whereby the police officers view the general public as their spy while the public view the police officers as oppressors (Victor & Naughton, 2011). Data indicate that most of the photographs and videos that are widely shared by the media involve those that depict a police officer engaging in misconduct. This form of posts attracts many readers who read and share information without clearly understanding the beginning of the problem (In Mervio, 2015). As the information spread the public from a negative attitude and view towards the police department and officers considering them as unethical and oppressive. Additionally, it is important to indicate that the social media provide social information to the public which has been widely used to create a bad image on the police officers by capturing them when engaging in unethical behavior (Callanan & Rosenberger, 2011).

Summary

According to the constitution of the US the public is allowed to record a police while in line of duty, but it is unfortunate that the same constitution does not protect the police officers from spread of inappropriate data on social media based on photographs and video recordings that are not supported by adequate information to explain the situation (Surette, 2014). It is also important to indicate that increased use of social media platforms to capture and spread police activities while on duty is adversely affecting the day to day roles and responsibilities of the police department. It is therefore essential to indicate that social media can equally be utilized to positively impact on the police department by capturing incidences when police engage effectively in their role and providing adequate information to support a video or a photograph (Callanan & Rosenberger, 2011).

References

Callanan, V. J., & Rosenberger, J. S. (2011). Media and public perceptions of the police: examining the impact of race and personal experience.  Policing & Society ,  21 (2), 167-189.

Cordner, G. W. (2016).  Police administration . Routledge..

Denef, S., Bayerl, P. S., & Kaptein, N. A. (2013, April). Social media and the police: tweeting practices of British police forces during the August 2011 riots. In  Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems  (pp. 3471-3480). ACM.

Gaines, L. K. (2017).  Criminal justice in action: The core . Place of publication not identified: Cengage Learning

Grossmith, L., Owens, C., Finn, W., Mann, D., Davies, T., & Baika, L. (2015). Police, camera, evidence: London's cluster randomized controlled trial of Body Worn Video.  London, United Kingdom: College of Policing and the Mayor’s Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC) .

IFIP Conference on e-Business, e-Services, and e-Society, In Dwivedi, Y. K., In Mäntymäki, M., In Ravishankar, M. N., In Janssen, M., In Clement, M., In Slade, E. L., ... In Simintiras, A. C. (2016).  Social media: The good, the bad, and the ugly: 15th IFIP WG 6.11 Conference on e-Business, e-Services, and e-Society, I3E 2016, Swansea, UK, September 13-15, 2016, Proceedings .

In Bwalya, K. J., & In Mutula, S. M. (2015).  Digital solutions for contemporary democracy and government .

In Information Resources Management Association, (2016).  Biometrics: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications . Rshey : Information Science Reference

In Marvin, M. M. (2015).  Management and participation in the public sphere . Rshey, PA: Information Science Reference, an imprint of IGI Global.

In Milstein, C. (2015).  Taking sides: Revolutionary solidarity and the poverty of liberalism . Oakland, CA: AK Press

In Mitchell, C., In Dorian, E., & IGI Global, (2017).  Police psychology and its growing impact on modern law enforcement .

Jefferis, E., Butcher, F., & Hanley, D. (2011). Measuring perceptions of police use of force.  Police Practice and Research: An International Journal ,  12 (1), 81-96.

Miller, L. S., Hess, K. M., & Orthmann, C. H. (2014).  Community policing: partnerships for problem-solving . Boston, MA: Cengage Learning .

Reeves, J. (2017).  Citizen spies: The long rise of America's surveillance society . New York University Press.

Sarkar, R. (2013).  The new soldier in the age of asymmetric conflict . New Delhi: Vij Books India.

Surette, R. (2014).  Media, crime, and criminal justice . Australia: Wadsworth

Trottier,  Daniel & Fuchs, C. (2015). Social media, politics and the state: protests, revolutions, riots, crime. Place of publication not identified: Routledge.

Turvey, B. E., & Crowder, S. (2013).  Ethical Justice: Applied issues for criminal justice students and professionals . Oxford: Elsevier Academic Press.

Victor, J. L., & Naughton, J. (2011).  Criminal Justice 08/09 . Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill Contemporary Learning Series.

Wall, T., & Linnemann, T. (2014). Staring down the state: Police power, visual economies, and the "war on cameras." Crime, Media, Culture ,  10 (2), 133-149.

When focusing on problem