The massive volcanic eruption of Thera which occurred about 3600 years ago is considered the largest eruption that humanity has ever witnessed (estimated to approximately forty atomic bombs) (Knappett, Rivers, & Evans, 2011, p. 233). The eruption transformed the island which was originally one into a caldera and as a result wrecked the isle interfering with both socio-political and economic activities of the occupants of the area (Manning , 2010, p. 342). Since the time of eruption to date, there has been an extensive research by scientist typically from every field; archaeologists, historians, amateurs, geologist, volcanologist, even fictional literature personnel among others, who have been concerned with the eruption. The research aims to determine the extent and spread of the destruction over the years on the environment, health and social-economic quotas of the area (Manning S. W., 2012, p. 123). Others have also dedicated their research on determining the possible cause, magnitude, and intensity of the eruption. Since the explosion, anything mysterious that has happened on the island is believed to be connected to the event. Some scientist argue that the catastrophic phenomenon had a significant consequence on the landscape, the society as well as the climate, effects of which are felt to date even to the surrounding areas. On the other hand, others have argued that the far-reaching consequences of the eruption have been exaggerated and did not have any effect on the course of human civilization. They argue that the eruption did not have a direct effect on the human systems of life (Leroy, 2013, p. 23). This paper analyzes the debate surrounding the far-reaching impacts of this prehistoric catastrophic event and the tsunamis that followed after on the society and the environment.
In order to understand the effects caused by the catastrophic eruption of Thera, it is important to discuss the phases of the eruption, the emissions involved and the magnitude of the eruption. The first phase of the explosion was characterized by the fall and deposition of the pumice estimated to be of thickness 5 meters in the region of Fira and thinned rapidly towards the west, north and south up to 80 centimeters thick (Leroy, 2013, p. 45). Also, it is established that at the time of these eruptions, the main wind was blowing towards the east and the eruption column is estimated by calculations to have reached a height of thirty-eight kilometers. The finding is in agreement with other results that show that the eruption height reached the atmosphere layer called the stratosphere and the gases produced spread entirely to the northern hemisphere as far as Greenland (McCoy & Heiken, 2000, p. 328). The initial explosion was very violent and intense. During this phase, the pumice materials were ejected to high heights and later dropped on the surrounding areas and sea generating currents.
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The second phase is also known as the base surge involved the deposition of large undulating layers of pumice. During this stage, the research report of volcanologists agrees that the eruptive mechanisms were entirely different with the first phase. The vent created during the first eruption widened breaking the neighboring areas allowing sea water to enter (Manning , 2012, p. 145). The interaction of the sea water and the hot magma led to violent reactions producing vast amounts of ash which covered the entire area and the neighboring areas. The third phase of eruption is described as the pyroclastic stage. It is can be differentiated from the other stages majorly by the dark fragments it contained. During this face, there was a collapse of the volcanic edifice due to the rapid release of the magma chamber (Friedrich, 2000, p. 223). The third stage produced the northern basin of the current caldera. The findings by scientist indicated that the quantity of magma release is approximated to 60 cubic kilometers which are six times greater than the Krakatoa eruption (Manning , 2010, p. 234). The ash produced registered a height of 30 meters spreading to a width of 30 kilometers as established by volcanologist who did the research. After the eruptions, there came a series of the tsunami. A tsunami is tidal wave of water mass in an ocean often caused by a volcanic explosion, land slide along the coastal regions, earthquakes at the ocean bed or other disturbances. (Doumas, 1993, p. 1). The tsunamis are primarily thought to be triggered by the hot fast-moving materials from great heights deposited at sea (McCoy & Heiken, 2000, p. 454). These are the features of the volcano which are used to debate the effects of the eruption.
Attempts are also made to determine an influence of Minoan before the Thera eruption to establish a justification of the extent of which the society was affected by the interruptions caused by the catastrophic event. The evidence is found from the archaeological remains of the Aegean region. The society had a unique religious system and even offered offerings. Their practices were well defined as evidenced by the finding of a ritual cup used for pouring libations (Doumas , 1993, p. 132). Evidence shows the use of three unique cups spreading across the entire island. The presence of material culture indicated the cordial existence between the Minoans and their partners in trade during the bronze era. This indicated that the Minoans had a strong economic tie within themselves and beyond (Doumas , 1983, p. 112). According to reports of various research in the history of human kind, there is only one eruption that is considered greater than the eruption of Thera which took place in Indonesian in 1815 known as the eruption of Tambora releasing 100 cubic kilometers of magma (Doumas , 1993, p. 117).
The eruption had a profound effect on the landscape of Thera. Comparing the world map before and after the explosion, it is evident that the map looks different. The original form of the island was altered. The island which was initially one was set into a caldera changing the crustal arrangement and integrity of rocks structures (Luongo, et al., 2009, p. 322). A huge hole formed into the island of Santorini as a result of the massive blow. Also, it changed the course of Mediterranean Sea into a different direction due to deposition of materials in the sea and extension of the boundaries of the island (Zeilinga & Boer, 2002, p. 123). The ash deposited in the sea and the ground of the area and the neighboring areas entirely changed the topography of the area. Valleys become raised while steep sloped become gentle, small depressions and mountaintop shaped altered (Manning 2010, p. 149). The topography, on the other hand, had a significant impact on the current distribution of the pumice. Large amounts of pumice were deposited at lower elevations while less was deposited at high altitudes. Steep slopes were not able to hold the pumice thus the pumice was deposited on flat and gently sloping areas. Valleys were raised since they accommodated more pumice leading to a new topography. It is evident from the maps that the eastern side (windward side) of Thera was significantly increased in width due to the deposition of the debris on the alluvial plain (Zeilinga & Boer, 2002, p. 231). The effect of the debris deposition was that Pre-Kameni Island inside the Caldera disappeared while Thera joined to the ancient Island of Monolithos (Knappett, Rivers, & Evans, 2011, p. 342). As stated earlier, strong winds blew to the east at the time of the eruption, thus, more effects were towards the east of the island.
Figure 1; Current Map of the Santorini Island.
Figure 2: Volcanic craters on Santorini changing the topography
The eruption changed the course of human civilization culture and development. Firstly, in order to understand the theoretical issues of change of human civilization culture, the relationship of the eruption and the human culture which needs to established include; whether the eruption has prompted a modification in the culture and a change in the environment, and the human response to the volcanic effect (Luongo, et al., 2009, p. 177). Culture is defined by a people within a given locality. The eruption changed the environment as well as destroying the human settlement where their culture had been set. Hence it is right to say that the eruption led to the scrambling of the Minoan culture. It disoriented the political landscape hence disrupting the dominant civilization originally present in the Mediterranean (McCoy & Heiken, 2000, p. 167). The residents were evacuated before the eruptions due to a finding forewarning over the eruption, they moved to different areas of the different cultural background. The coastal villages as well were blown off by the tsunami resulting from the collapse of the powerful Minoan civilization (Luongo et al., 2009, p. 342). Within a short period, the serene, effective supreme culture faded away and led into the invasion of the warring system of the olden Greece to monopolize the Mediterranean (Zeilinga & Boer, 2002, p. 322). Minoans who were traders both from Crete and Cyclades, several of their harbors, villages, and markets facing Santorini were hit by the catastrophic tsunami with wave up to 30m high washed away the fleet onto the land where it was smashed into the mountains (McCoy & Heiken, 2000, p. 223). Also, vessels used for foreign trade which was present in the area were also washed away which influenced strongly on the cultural development and the trade relations in the whole area (Cline & Cline, 1991, p. 221). The loss of trading vessels and loss of life at the coastal regions disrupted trade for several years and changed the course of their social and cultural life (Doumas , 1983, p. 315). The devastation did not only affect the Minoan at Akrotiri but also extended to the population at Crete. It is suggested that the ash from the eruption adversely impacted on the plant life at Crete resulting into the shortage of food hence starvation leading to the death of the population (Luongo et al., 2009, p. 241). However there has been a series of controversial findings suggesting that the people at Crete could not be adversely affected by the quantity of ash reportedly determined to have fallen in Crete is barely 5mm high (Michael & Higgins, 2003, p. 113). Others also argue that according to archaeological findings the Minoan population at the coast of Crete was wiped away by the tsunami which resulted from the eruption but not as a result of the ashfall (McCoy & Heiken, 2000, p. 223).
In addition, the study of the island has yielded information about the rich culture of the Santorini. The materials found in Akrotiri of gold, silver and bronze artifacts showed the occupants had a culture of painting. The visual information provided by the paintings showed that the occupants had a developed dressing style, tools, and weapons, religion, economic activities for instance fishing and everything to do with their daily activities (Doumas , 1983, p. 221). The artifacts also suggested that the people of Santorini offered religious sacrifices. This rich culture was destroyed due to migration, devastation, death, and settlement into different areas. Due to the effect of starvation, the Minoans were conquered by the Mycenaeans (Luongo et al., 2009, p. 332). Therefore, it is accurate to say that the eruption had a profound effect on the culture and civilization of the people of Santorini.
Figure 3: Excavated pottery
Figure 4: Evidence of rich culture- Painting of two young men playing boxing
On the other hand, counter information about the impact of the eruption on the human civilization culture is on the spread. The argument suggests that the eruption did not result in an immediate collapse of the Minoan culture (Leroy, 2013, p. 311). They argue that the effects of the explosion only caused economic hardship as a result of the wiping of the coastal areas and the sailor ships which formed an essential part of the Minoan livelihood (Cline & Cline, 1991, p. 123). The economic hardship at the long run led to the collapse of the kingdom. They also argue that the crisis of the Minoan civilization came many years after the eruption. This is the period where Minoan were conquered by the Mycenaeans. Although it is recorded that the Minoan kingdom becomes weak due to the explosion that made the people vulnerable to attack, it was not the eruptions that caused immediate downfall of the Minoan culture (Doumas , 1983, p. 141). Besides, the reports presented by the scientist are products of research and personal opinions which are subject to bias. There are no records or written statements by the Minoans about the effects of the eruption (Michael & Higgins, 2003, p. 223). Thus, according to these arguments, the results of the Thera eruption is exaggerated and did not have a direct impact on the human course of civilization.
Also, the eruption altered the climatic conditions and atmospheric compositions of the area and the surrounding areas. For several years after the explosion, the climate drastically changed. There were many years of cold coupled with wet summers (Knappett, Rivers, & Evans, 2011, p. 311). This climate changes resulted from the release of the Sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere, thickening the ozone layer and increasing the cloud cover thus altering temperatures (Manning , 2012, p. 332). The release of toxic gases such as carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide changed the composition of the atmosphere. The gases formed acidic rains and fell back to the ground affecting the neighboring areas as well. The effect is evident in China where a survey conducted reported the rains caused the death of plants in more significant parts of the country. The gases have also caused respiratory problems, effects of which are felt as vast as China. The gases as well limited the visibility of the area, affecting navigation by sea (Zeilinga & Boer, 2002, p. 118).
Besides, the eruptions led to devastations in the vicinity. The ash and pumice released also covered the neighboring areas. The ash falls and dangerous gases released had tragic effects on the entire neighboring areas of Santorini (Manning , 2010, p. 176). To the east of Santorini, the island of Rhodes and Anaphi were exposed to rains of ash. Large parts of Rhodes Island were subjected to the precipitation of ash which was carried in the east direction. Besides, a large mass of pumice covered the surface of the sea over a wide area and washed up at higher levels of the shores by the tsunamis which were caused by the collapse of the caldera and the earthquakes (Manning , 2012, p. 111). Pumice was also discovered on the northern ocean borders of the Crete shores of Paros, Samothrace, and Anaphe among others. Further, due to the collapse of the roof of the magma chamber during the final phase of the eruption, the floating pumice hindered shipping transportation and fishing activities for several years. Fine ash particles, on the other hand, were also transported into the stratosphere (a layer of the atmosphere) altering the climate due to an interception of the sun's radiation hence climatic change (Friedrich, 2000, p. 32).
Similarly, flora and fauna were adversely affected. The eruptions had a significant effect on the vegetation of the ancient island. The ash deposit of Minoan profoundly destroyed everything. Low elevation areas have utterly destroyed both plants and animals. Few plants survived in the high elevation areas such as the ridge Platinum's, Profitis Elias and on steps of the wind shadow sides of the eruptions (Friedrich, 2000, p. 45). Animals experienced a similar effect. All land animals were wiped out except for few small creatures in high elevations such as snakes, lizards, and snails among others that survived the eruption (Knappett, Rivers, & Evans, 2011, p. 227). However, research has shown that there are no traces of human losses in the Thera excavation. This was because people were evacuated before the eruption (Doumas , 1983, p. 342).
The crucial debate surrounding this catastrophic event over the past decades is the discrepancy of time in which this event happened. The period established by the analysis of relationship between archaeological evidence and material culture of the east Mediterranean do not match which the results from science based analysis. Some people also argue that the Thera eruption is not a natural process of volcanic activity which involves movement of molten materials from the earth’s interior, magma, rather it is Biblical event controlled by the power of God to accomplish the chronology of events in the Bible. Thus, they reject scientific evidence provided to explain the cause and period the event.
In Summary, the catastrophic eruption of Thera was massive enough to bring destruction to the eastern Mediterranean. Majorly, the initial explosion caused a big ash cover over the island east of Santorini (McCoy & Heiken, 2000, p. 44). The phase triggered an alteration in the global climatic scale which led to reduced agricultural harvest in the areas where the ash fell. Correspondingly, people had to vacate their homesteads. Historians have established a shred of evidence to prove that the climatic changes were experienced even in China. The subsequent two phases of the eruption, pumice ejected by the volcano covered the surface of the sea and made water navigation a problem crippling the water transportation. The phases of the eruption were then proceeded by a tsunami which had devastating consequences on the coastal areas of Santorini. According to some scientists, the main tsunami was caused by the fall of the roof of the magma column and several tsunamis usually happen after one another at small intervals (Manning S. W., 2012).
References
Thera Island before eruption
Cline, E. H., & Cline, M. J. (1991). “Of Shoes and Ships and Sealing Wax": International Trade and the Late Bronze Age Aegean. Expedition.
Michael, & Higgins, R. (2003). A Companion to Greece and the Aegean. New York: Cornell University Press.
Features of eruption
Friedrich, W. L. (2000). Fire in the Sea: Volcanism and the Natural History of Santorini. London: Cambridge University Press.
Manning, S. W. (2010). A Test of Time: The Volcano of Thera and the Chronology and History of the Aegean and East Mediterranean in the Mid Second Millennium BC. Oxbow Books.
Manning, S. W. (2012). The Eruption of Thera/Santorini. The Oxford Handbook of The Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000–1000 BC). New York: Oxford University Press.
McCoy, F. W., & Heiken, G. (2000). Tsunami generated by the late Bronze Age eruption of Thera (Santorini), Greece. Pure and Applied Geophysics.
Archaeological evidence
Doumas, C. (1993). The Wall Paintings of Thera. The Thera Foundation- Petros M. Nomikos.
Doumas, C. G. (1983). Aegean: Excavations at Akrotiri 1967-1979 (New Aspects of Antiquity). Thames and Hudson.
The Catastrophic effects of the eruption.
Knappett, C., Rivers, R., & Evans, T. (2011). The Theran eruption and Minoan palatial collapse: new interpretations gained from modeling the maritime network. Antiquity.
Leroy, S. (2013). Historical Events. In Encyclopedia of Natural Hazards. Utrecht: Springer Netherlands.
Luongo, G., Perrota, A., Scarpati, C., Carolis, E. D., Patricelli, G., & Ciarallo, A. (2009). Impact of the AD 79 explosive eruption on Pompeii, II. Causes of death of the inhabitants inferred by stratigraphic analysis and areal distribution of the human casualties. Journal of Volcanology of Geothermal Research., 162-200.
McCoy, F. W., & Heiken, G. (2000). Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity (Geological Society of America Special Papers). Geological Society of Amen.
Zeilinga, J., & Boer, D. (2002). Volcanoes in human history: the far-reaching effects of major eruptions. Princeton University Press.
