Question: How Do British And American Authors Represent The Colonial Environment?
The expansion of colonialism was an essential factor in inspiring writing during the colonial era. Novels and domestic tales by different authors explored the theme of colonialism. As colonialism continued to feature heavily in the Western imagination, many authors decided to transfer their thoughts to literature. British and American authors are known for their works in literature mainly focusing on the issue of imperialism and colonialism. The Victorian period was the epitome of the British imperialism. As such, colonial ideology was a mainstay for many authors, a theme that resonated well with the general public. Regarding America, their colonial literature emerged during their colonial days under the British imperialists. The main characteristic of the colonial American literature is the value of narration with similar works observed in journals, letters, memoirs, and biographies. Since the Americans were under the British rule, many stories have tended to focus on the high level of hostility between the Native Americans and the colonialists. With each nation having different colonial experiences, the British and the American authors have their unique way of representing the colonial environment.
Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe": Representation of British Colonial Environment
According to Bradford (2012) colonialism is generally defined as the acquisition, establishment, maintenance, and expansion of colonies territories by foreigners from another country (55). As earlier noted, the height of colonialism and imperialism was experienced in Britain during the Victorian age. Britain had a policy of colonial expansion that saw it acquire many territories across the globe. It is in this regard that England is usually regarded as one of the most influential colonial powers in the world. British conducted their colonial activities in the 15th and 20th centuries using Christianity, economic demands, and expansion of power as the factors for justification. At one point in time, Spain and Portugal were substantial colonial powers across Europe. However, their colonial positions regressed towards the seventeenth century, as England went ahead to become a leader in the colonial arena. Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" is an embodiment of British colonial literature and further reveals the representation of the colonial environment in this country. A proper understanding of the message passed in the literary text requires an appreciation that the book was published in 1719. At this time, England enjoyed the glory it received from its colonies in America. One of the important lessons that could be taken from the many literary works of this time was the belief that God was always on the side of the British. Many people employed the assertions that "God is on the side of the English" (Defoe, 2010 pp. 97) especially during the reign of the Queen Elizabeth the first. As such, many literary works such as "Robison's Crusoe" created an environment of superiority that helped them in building their imperialist power against their colonialists.
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"Robinson Crusoe" has a British trader as the hero in the novel. The colonial context is emphasized by the setting of the story which occurs on a distant Caribbean island. Whereas many can interpret the book on the surface by intimating that it highlights the struggle for survival of a strong-willed man, the truth is that the book depicts an allegorical journey to colonialism and imperialism. In emphasizing the representation of the colonial environment, Edward Said in commenting about "Robinson Crusoe" asserted that it is "a work whose protagonist is the founder of a new world, which he rules and reclaims for Christianity in England” (Defoe, 2010 pp. 89). Robinson Crusoe provides a narrative adventure based on his real-life encounters. His journey begins in a turbulent fashion characterized by a storm and enslavement by Moors. However, as soon as he begins to settle in the new land, he gradually learns to dominate the land and people surrounding him. Therefore, Crusoe himself embodies the mindset of a colonizer. Through his relentless efforts and challenges he goes through on the island, he develops into an individual capable of developing his empire. As such, regarding the colonial environment of Britain, the story in “Robinson Crusoe” reflects the British people’s struggles and suffering in a bid to assert their dominance and self-importance as they moved to a new environment. In further proving this, as he arrives at the island, he tells himself "Lord of the whole Manor; or if I pleased, I might call myself King, or Emperor over the whole country which I had possession of” (Defoe, 2010, pp. 103). He presents the bravery of the British colonial people, who instead of fearing or showing reservations towards their newly acquired territories; they only remain concerned with the imminent glories that come with it.
In establishing their colonial dominance in America in the 15th century, the British imperialists worked round the clock to ensure that they not only asserted their power but also their culture and traditions on the people. Vandermeersche and Soetaert (2012) noted that the control of the colonies was not only in the physical sense but also involved imposing cultural dominance and foreign language (245). Crusoe emphasizes this as he continues to illustrate his story on his acquired island. He depicts the true mentality of a colonialist by establishing a slow control over the island and his treatments towards Friday. He goes ahead and creates the laws for the island further replicating how the British colonialists created rules and regulations that governed their colonies in America. Other than creating the laws, he also names various places and things as part of his exercise of power. Many literary critics agree that "Crusoe assumes possession of him in the same way that Columbus assumed possession of the land by his naming" (Bailey, 2012, 89). Therefore, through the literary works by authors such as Crusoe, the readers get a scope of the mentality of colonialists and how they portrayed their environment. Similar to an ideal coloniser, Crusoe establishes a cultural dominance on the island.
Religion was an essential part of the colonialists and their environment in America. Two major religious factions in colonial America included the Puritans and the Pilgrims. Pilgrims utilized a Separatist approach while the Puritans employed were regarded as the non-separating Congregationalists who believed and remained loyal to the Church of England. The Pilgrims were relatively few as only a few survived their voyage from England to America. On the contrary, the Puritans came in large numbers with an approximately 75% of the American population having the Puritan roots (Grapard, & Hewitson, 2012, pp. 87). While most Pilgrims decided to settle in Plymouth, many Puritans decided to settle in Salem and Boston. Therefore, these two groups formed the basis of religious beliefs mainly imported from Britain as seen through their connection to the Church of England. On his arrival in the island, as part of his dominance, Defoe ensures that his religious beliefs are adopted by the indigenous people. Friday remains a casualty of Defoe's antics and is required to show subservience to his purported master. For instance, in an occasion, Crusoe makes comments regarding Friday asserting that “I was greatly delighted with him, and made it my business to teach him everything that was proper to make him useful, handy, and helpful; but especially to make him speak, and understand me when I spoke” (Defoe, 2010, 303). From this ordeal, it remains apparent that English colonialists regarded several tenets about their culture especially religion as the only one valid and the one which requires embracement by their colonialists.
James Fennimore Cooper in "The Last of the Mohicans": Representation of the American Colonial Environment
Americans authors have also done a great deal of work in portraying the colonial environment. One of the significant differences between the depiction of the environment between the British and the Americans is that the latter mainly focuses on highlighting the effects of colonialism because they were largely victims. Acuña (2015) asserted that the US was a victim of colonialism from the British power in the 15th and 16th century which led to their organization into colonies required to work in the plantations for the raw materials of industries situated in England (61-63). As such, they faced a couple of challenges that included forced labor, imposed cultural tenets such as religion, and eviction from their lands. As such, this prompted many authors to highlight several books that pinpointed various themes surrounding the lives of the Native Americans during the colonial periods. One of the major American authors that explore the nature of the environment during the colonial era is James Fennimore Cooper in "The Last of the Mohicans." He mainly talks about the theme of incomplete colonization. He talks about the use of indirect means employed by the British and French in pursuing colonization in New England. He assesses the lack of political power as a significant driver by these colonial forces in declaring their interest in America.
The story outlines how the colonial powers used their manipulative strengths in luring the locals into their colonization trap. During the 18th century, the British and French powers spread rumors in New England that they were a civilized lot and would offer much help to the uncivilized people living in these territories. As such, the Indian tribes in America would then believe that several elements of the civilization such as the new religion would offer rationality. The Red Indians, therefore, internalized this leading to the acknowledgment of the inferiority of their heritage and legacy. Part of what is discussed in the novel is the French colonization of the Hurons. As they pursued their cause, the French people contaminated the tradition and practices of the Delaware (Landrum, 2012, pp. 182-183). The Hurons, therefore, took the French culture and embraced their culture and mannerism including the way they drank wine, use of medicines, and the adoption of the French language. Such predicaments experienced by the discussed tribes in the novel such as the Magua have a broader portrayal of the kind of effects that European colonialism had in New England in the 18th century. In the novel, the author illustrates that the French wanted the Huron tribe to disintegrate which would be vital in their process of colonialism and subsequent expansion.
James Fennimore, therefore, reveals that I the American process of colonization, the process was mainly hallmarked by an environment filled with deceit. The British and Americans spread rumors to achieve their underlying agenda of colonizing the New England and robbing the indigenous Indian tribes of their culture and heritage. The author further illustrates that “to meet the standard of their colonial interests, both the French and the English sow seeds of conflict amidst heterogeneous Indian tribes” (Cooper, 1986, 33). The text reflects that it was only through creating an environment filled with the division that the colonial masters would have the opportunity to assert their dominance over the native tribes. For instance, the author narrates a story where the Iroquois, native tribe in New England, backed by the English forces, launched a scathing attack on the Delaware community. The result was that members of the Delaware community remained scattered and dislocated. Strong (2018) illustrated that the lesson learned from this story is that indeed the colonialists relied much on creating an environment filled with hatred and animosity in a bid to achieve division, which would subsequently assist it in the process of colonization and expansion to nearby territories (23-24).
In the process of colonization, it is only a power game between two or more states. During the colonial eras, nations would identify potential countries which would help them reap maximum economic benefits. However, the challenge that usually came with this identification was the scramble for the territories that further ensued. For instance, the process of colonization in New England, as revealed by James Fennimore, was a contest between two nations pitting France and Britain both which wanted to have a fair share of control of the native Indians to ensure that the colonization process was a success. The “incomplete colonization” that James talks about is an illustration of the two powers, France and England’s failure to receive full backing from the Indian tribes (Tuck, & Yang, 2012, pp. 176). As such, this resulted in hostility between the two powers. They engage in a colonial game of who had the greatest power of gaining the highest control and share of the territories. As such, the author presents another valuable assessment of the colonial environment in America. Loyalty by the local residents was vital in fulfilling the colonial process. Failure to show collaboration to the colonialists by the locals automatically made the colonial process an uphill task. On the contrary, those who showed alignment to the imperialists would likely suffer the effects of colonialism more.
The principal cultural tenet of many American works of literature is religion. It is heavily featured in the literary debate as an essential part of natives culture that suffered great erosion due to the introduction of other beliefs. James fronts an argument known as the incomplete colonization where the colonial powers targeting the New England inhabited by colonial America are deeply ingrained in their indigenous religious beliefs. However, colonialists attempt to use religion as an incentive to explore these lands and appeal more to the people as seen earlier during the 16th century with the Puritans and Pilgrims who traversed colonial Americans from England (Spaas, & Stimpson, 2016, pp. 56). An environment of appeal is, therefore, a fundamental aspect of colonialists who always wanted the natives to view their presence as an immense source of benefit before engaging in any other activity that would potentially harm them.
In conclusion, the two authors Defoe and James in their novels “Robinson Crusoe” and “The Last of the Mohicans” reveal the respective colonial environments of Britain and America. Naturally, the portrayal of these environments had to differ immensely because of their differed colonial paths. Whereas America does not have a history of colonizing a nation, Britain, in fact, is known for its colonization of the Americans. Therefore, Wisecup (2013) intimated that Defoe reveals vital insights about the mentality of a typical colonialist and how they influence the environment by creating a certain degree of toxicity characterized by dominance and superiority (201-202). They want to install an immediate paradigm shift that entirely focuses on them as the leaders. On the other hand, James takes an underdog tone when he highlights the position of the vulnerable Native Americans in New England whose unity was put to the test by powerful colonial regimes such as England and French in a bid to advance their selfish agendas. Therefore, literature was an essential factor in documenting the colonial environment and revealing the several factors that could have likely contributed to the imperialism that came with it.
References
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Spaas, L. and Stimpson, B. eds., 2016. Robinson Crusoe: myths and metamorphoses . Springer.
Strong, P.T., 2018. Captive selves, captivating others: The politics and poetics of colonial American captivity narratives . Routledge.
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