Sociologists developed various theories and concepts to provide the rationale behind the different social phenomena. The theories further enable sociologists to assess human behavior and interaction from both a micro-level and macro-level perspective. Ferris and Stein (2010) asserted that the micro-level perspective enables an individual to analyze phenomenon in small social patterns while the macro-level allows for broader or larger social patterns. Some of the major sociological theories that sociologists use to view the world include the social identity theory, conflict theory, structural functionalism, and symbolic interaction. The theories are prominent because they play a significant role in explaining life and the processes surrounding it. Furthermore, the theories explain certain fundamental aspects about the society that define human beings include social interaction, institutions, social constructions, media, politics, and education amongst others.
Social Identity Theory
The theory postulates that an individual's perception of who they are relies on the groups they belong. The originators of the theory include Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979. The two asserted that individual concepts of who they emanate from the groups they belong in the society. Therefore, a person will tend to have multiple identities and selves that associated with groups which they are affiliated to. Ferris and Stein (2010) noted that the theory, therefore, intimates that the differed human behavior in different social contexts is as a result of their attachment to many groups. Examples of groups that could act to influence the behaviors of an individual include their family, the sports team they follow, their nationality, and neighborhood amongst others. The theory goes ahead to explain that the groups that an individual feels an attachment to are referred to as the in-group. On the contrary, those which they lack an identity with are known as out-groups.
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The social identity theory enables people to look at social phenomena at a micro level because it primarily focuses on understanding an individual. In developing the in-group and out-group mentality, three critical processes play a significant role. The first is known as social categorization which takes cognizance of the fact that people are categorized for the purpose of identification (Stets, & Serpe, 2013). Examples of social categories include race, profession, primary groups-bureaucracy, and political affiliation amongst others. Therefore, when an individual understands and appreciates their social category, they know more about themselves and define their behavior appropriately depending on their affiliated social group. Most fundamentally, an individual can belong to many groups at a given time. The second process is known as the social identification. People always tend to behave in a manner that reflects the tendency or philosophy of that group. For instance, a Democrat will most likely behave in accordance with the norms of the group. The third process is known as the social comparison where members tend to compare themselves with other groups outside their interests.
Stets and Serpe (2013) noted that the social comparison involves individuals in an in-group comparing themselves with those in an out-group. It is a process that is usually influenced by self-esteem which eventually causes members in a group to compare themselves favorably in relation to others. It, therefore, explains the onset of discrimination and prejudice since the group members will view members of competing groups negatively to boost their esteem. It, therefore, explains the onset of social groups and classes which eventually causes people to gather around their races, ethnicity, and gender in a bid to assert their dominance.
Conflict Theory
The conflict theory primarily came as a result of Karl Marx's exploration of class struggles. It mainly highlights the conflicted, negative, and the continually changing nature of the society. Most fundamentally, it views issues at a macro level. Karl Marx puts competition at the helm of the theory by asserting that the society comprises of individuals who are regularly competing for the scarce resources. Examples of the limited resources include money, intimate partners, and leisure amongst others. There is a class of people or organization in the society that has more resources including power and influence and thus uses these as a basis for maintaining their power in the society (Ferris, & Stein, 2010).
The conflict theory makes three fundamental assumptions about the society. First, it asserts that competition for the scarce resources is the primary factor that defines social relationships. It, therefore, opposes consensus as a human characteristic and places competition at the helm of the society. Secondly, it postulates that all social structures have two crucial attributes that include reward and the inequalities in power. Ferris and Stein (2010) noted that the third major assumption made by the theory is that change does not occur through adaptation but as a result of the conflicts that arise between the competing interests. Proponents of the theory have used in discussing the social groups where inequality exists. Some of the areas it targets include the racial, religious, gender, economic, and political conflicts that come as a result of competition for scarce resources.
In applying the social conflict theory, it is critical to understand that unequal groups depict conflicting agendas and values thereby causing competition amongst each other. The society, therefore, remains in a constant change as a result of the ongoing competition. The conflict perspective can explain several macro-level issues that exist in the society such as poverty, race, deviance, race, and ethnicity. First, the conflict theory assumes that the primary characteristic of the society is the unequal distribution of power. Therefore, due to the inequality, conflict arises in the society. The racial tension in America can be viewed through this sociological lens. The ethnic and racial minorities feel that the white majorities have control of the various social and economic mechanisms thus leading to inequality. Poverty leads to conflict because the low socioeconomic individuals feel that the scarce resources are controlled by the few rich people. The case applies to feminists fighting for gender rights. The theory further explains the onset of social stratification due to the inequality that creates classes in the society depending on the availability of resources.
Structural Functionalism Theory
The structural functionalism theory further looks at issues at the macro-level. The functionalism theory asserts that the society functions as a unit due to the synergy brought about by interdependent factors. An example of the structural functionalism in action is when the government pays school fees for children in the family which reciprocates by paying taxes required for the survival of the state. Thompson, Hickey, and Thompson (2016) indicated that the structural functionalism theory aims at instilling order, productivity, and stability as a result of a harmonious interdependence. The theory, therefore, views each part of the society with regards to how it contributes to the societal stability. The theory was postulated by a theorist known as Durkheim who envisioned the society as an organism where each component plays an essential role in its survivability.
Within the theory, various parts of the society contain social institutions each of which fulfills a specific role and have specific consequences for the shape and form of the society. Some of the social institutions that can assist an individual to adequately understand the theory include government, family, media, economy, religion, and education. In reference to these institutions, the functionalism theory postulates that they only exist because of the critical role they play in the society. Therefore, if it no longer serves its intended function, it will likely regress and die away. Furthermore, when new needs or emerge or the existing ones evolve, new institutions will arise to fill for the demands.
As previously noted, functionalism emphasizes on order and social stability that comes as a result of shared public values. Disorganization in the system that could arise due to deviant behavior will initiate a change process because the components in the society must change for stability to come (Thompson, Hickey, & Thompson, 2016). In assessing the application of the functionalism theory at the macro level, one can assess institutions or social structures such as media, peers, school, family, and the state. The media informs the family about the government intentions to offer free education and increase taxes. The family members receive government free education for the children who grow up as responsible citizens of the nations. They also pay taxes that ensure the state has enough money to run and to pay for their children's educational needs. Furthermore, media especially social media and education play a significant role in creating social networks as people continually realize that they need each other to make a functional society.
Symbolic Interactionist Theory
Denzin (2016) noted that the symbolic interactionism theory primarily focuses on symbols that define an individual's everyday life. It is a theoretical approach that aims at explaining the relationship between human beings and the society. It fundamentally focuses on the fact that human interaction and actions can only be understood by assessing the meaningful symbols and communications. The symbolic interactionist theory has three major principles with the first one asserting that human only act depending on the meaning they draw from things. Secondly, it works on the principle that the meanings that human act upon are as a result of the ongoing processes of interaction and interpretation. Thirdly, it states that social action comes as a result of fitting together different lines of action.
Therefore, the symbolic interactionism perspective holds that individuals attach various meanings to symbols. It further asserts that people primarily act in accordance to their interpretation of these symbols. For instance, in conversation or communication to lead to an action, it has to make meaning for both the sender and the receiver. Therefore, a conversation can be regarded as an interaction of symbols between individuals trying to interpret the world around them. Denzin (2016) further intimated that symbolic interaction, therefore, focuses on how people act and further seek to assess the meanings that individuals attach to their symbols and actions and also those of others.
As previously noted, symbolic interactionism assists people to look at things from a micro or personal perspective. It, therefore, means that people will have different ways of interpreting a symbol and attaching a meaning to it. For example, the institution of marriage can have many symbols associated to it that might include wedding bands, bridal dresses, a ring, and a wedding cake amongst others. The society has attached general meanings to such symbols which might differ from one person to the other. For instance, considering the engagement ring, one might view it as a symbol of the life-long relationship between the husband and the wife. On the other hand, one can also consider it as a measure of monetary value. The theory also explains gender and race and paints them as social constructs. For example, human beings have attached specific symbols to males and females such as mode of dressing or talking thereby creating a sharp contrast between the two sexes. Similar symbols have been attached to different races leading to stereotypes and prejudices.
In conclusion, the three theories explain social perspective through the lenses of theories and concepts thus ensuring that people understand life at a micro and macro level. It, therefore, becomes easier to appreciate why people behave the way they do and further assist people to appreciate institutions and structures present in the society.
References
Denzin, N. K. (2016). Symbolic interactionism. The international encyclopedia of communication theory and philosophy , 1-12.
Ferris, K., & Stein, J. (2010). The real world: An introduction to sociology . WW Norton & Company.
Stets, J. E., & Serpe, R. T. (2013). Identity theory. In Handbook of social psychology (pp. 31-60). Springer, Dordrecht.
Thompson, W. E., Hickey, J. V., & Thompson, M. L. (2016). Society in focus: An introduction to sociology . Rowman & Littlefield.
