American naturalism is one of the movements that have transformed the American literary scene. The main feature of this movement is its focus on objectivity ( “ Naturalism in American”, n.d). Using scientific principles, this movement attempts to offer unbiased assessments of human actions. A reading of Stephen Crane’s The Open Boat enables one to understand the influence of this movement. Objectivity is among the features of American naturalism that are evident in this short story. Instead of using abstract terms to describe human elements and actions, Crane uses concrete descriptions. For example, he describes the arms of a man as “ fat ” (Crane, 1897, p. 1). There are numerous other instances where Crane uses concrete terms to describe traits and physical features. Apart from using concrete terms to describe human traits, Crane also embraces purity and rawness in his presentation of events. For example, he describes the real and raw emotions of the characters in the short story without presenting his own interpretations of these emotions. This is the essence of American naturalism.
Among the numerous issues that literature usually explores is the relationship between mankind and his environment. Among the numerous feature that defines American naturalism is exploring the impact that the environment has on the lives of individuals ( “ Naturalism in American”, n.d). Writers who have adopted American naturalism attempt to understand how human relates to his environment. This can be seen in The Open Boat. The captain and his crew encounter rough seas that force them to redefine their relationship. Thanks to the storm at sea, the crew become closer and establish a brotherhood (Crane, 1897). The close friendship among the members of the crew is the direct result of the troubles that they face at sea. This relationship serves as evidence that the environment shapes human actions. By linking the close friendship to the experiences of the crew at sea, Crane essentially allows his readers to understand how American naturalism highlights the influence of the environment on human actions.
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It is true that American naturalism attempts to offer an unbiased and pure representation of issues. However, this movement also seeks to draw lessons from human experiences. It examines the larger themes that human experiences convey through simple acts and events ( “ Naturalism in American”, n.d). The Open Boat offers numerous instances where American naturalism can be seen in action. For example, the captain and his crew feel frustrated after escaping harm only to be plunged back into dangerous waters (Crane, 1897). Their frustration represents the anguish and desperation that individuals often feel when their efforts seem futile. It is clear that Crane based his work on American naturalism with the goal of shedding light on important themes.
African-American Literature
W. E. B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington are recognized as some of the pioneers of the movement to free the black community. Through their works, they inspired members of this community to own and be proud of their heritage. DuBois and Washington possessed strengths that enabled them to attain various accomplishments. Rising from slavery and oppression to become strong voices for their people is one of these accomplishments. For example, in the Souls of Black Folk, DuBois begins with his struggles with racism. He describes how as a small boy, he faced rejection and discrimination (DuBois, 1903). Despite the hardships that he encountered, DuBois went on to proudly proclaim his black heritage. The same can be said about Washington. In U p from Slavery, Washington talks about his past as a slave and the struggles that he endured. He refused to let these struggles kill his spirit. Through dedication and a strong belief in the dignity of the slaves, he championed for the rights of his fellow African Americans (Washington, 1901). Washington should receive some credit for the tremendous progress that African Americans continue to make.
Overcoming hardship is one of the many fetes that Washington and DuBois accomplished. These individuals also rose to prominence through acts of sacrifice and public service. For example, Washington opens up about how he was appointed to serve as the head of the Tuskegee Institute (Washington, 1901). His appointment was indeed surprising as many expected that a white man would be selected to head this institution. Washington must have been so competent and qualified that those who appointed him abandoned their racist prejudices. This is indeed an accomplishment. Throughout the Souls of Black Folk, DuBois chronicles his struggles and the hardships that the black community faced (DuBois, 1903). As one reads his work, they gain insights into the resilience that DuBois and his people must have possessed. To rise above racist treatment and to join others in building the nation is indeed remarkable.
DuBois and Washington understood that the redemption of the black community would require collective effort. This must be why they celebrated other leaders of the black community. For instance, in the Souls of Black Folk, DuBois recognizes the sacrifice, wisdom, and effective leadership that Washington demonstrated. This is an accomplishment as DuBois displayed maturity and a willingness to share the limelight. Washington also celebrated the resilience and effort of African Americans. For example, he talks about students who worked for 10 hours so that they are able to afford to study for two hours at Tuskegee Institute (Washington, 1901). By recognizing the desire for education that these students displayed, Washington celebrates their passion and unwavering desire for progress.
The progress that the African American community has made is the result of the efforts and sacrifices of many. This community has grown because its leaders have held the hands of others. Washington and DuBois were critical forces behind the liberation and success of their community. For example, while serving as the head of the Tuskegee Institute, Washington admitted poor black students who could not afford the fees (Washington, 1901). On his part, DuBois highlighted the initiatives designed to educate African Americans. While he was not directly involved in educating the black community, he sheds light on education programs. This is an accomplishment because DuBois makes it clear that the African American community has risen from illiteracy and its members are now educated.
African Literature: The Harlem Renaissance and Beyond
The Harlem Renaissance marked the rise of African American arts and culture. During this period, the members of this community declared their pride in their history, culture and tradition. An examination of various works from this and later periods reveals loud proclamations of pride. Ralph Ellison and Jean Toomer are among the black literary giants who used their works to express black pride. For example, in Battle Royal, Ellison states that he is not ashamed that his grandmother was a slave (Ellison, n.d). He adds that he only feels ashamed for having being ashamed of his heritage. Toomer echoes this sentiment in blood-burning moon. She describes how such black people as Louisa sang in defiance of the oppression that they faced (Toomer, 1923). Basically, Toomer celebrates the resilient and unbreakable spirit of the black community.
As part of his declaration of black pride, Ellison sheds light on the struggles of the black community. He describes how his grandfather resisted as other members of the black community endured oppression in silence (Ellison, n.d). By describing his grandfather’s resistance against oppression, Ellison basically celebrates the courageous black people who demanded equality and respect. While Ellison recognizes the strength of the black community, Toomer tarnishes the image of this community. Using the character of Tom, he suggests that black people sabotage their own progress through in-fighting. Tom fights off men who claim Louisa as their own (Toomer, 1923). His aggression hurts instead of driving the growth of the black community. Given that she was part of the Harlem Renaissance, it is surprising that Toomer chose to present African Americans in negative light. One would expect that she would use her work to celebrate her community.
One could argue that no other black writer expresses greater pride in his heritage than Ellison because he presents himself as the pride of his community. He describes how he was asked to speak to a group of white Americans. His speech was a proud moment for his community (Ellison, n.d). There is no doubt that Ellison proudly owns his heritage and strives to bring honor to the African American community. Toomer joins Ellison in expressing racial pride. She describes how Tom fought Bob, a white man to defend the honor of Louisa (Toomer, 1923). The fight is presented as a quest for honor and redemption. Through the character of Tom, Toomer made it clear that black people would no longer suffer in silence; they would rise up and demand better treatment. This is the meaning of black pride.
American Modernism: Post World War 1 American Literature
Gertrude Stein and Anzia Yezierska are among the female writers whose works focus on key themes that shaped the US in the years following World War I. In America and I, Yezierska explores the struggles of immigrants. On the other hand, Stein uses Ada to examine the concerns of individuals who feel trapped. Ada shoulders heavy burdens that make it difficult for her to pursue her desires. Using the character of Ada, Stein suggests that familial obligations can trap individuals and rob them of all happiness. While Yezierska is mostly concerned with the hardships that immigrants endure, Stein sheds light on the stifling of freedom. Both writers indicate that all individuals face struggles which limit progress and the pursuit of happiness.
America and I presents the cries of an immigrant who views the US as a land where dreams come true. This immigrant who is originally from Russia is trying to escape the oppression and poverty of her mother country (Yezierska, 1923). By sharing the fears and hopes of this immigrant, Yezierska must have set out to inform readers about the forces that drive immigration. Moreover, the experiences of immigrants in America and I offer insights into Yezierska’s concerns. Through these experiences, she indicates that she fears that together with other immigrants, she is not understood (Yezierska, 1923). She does not feel welcome in the land where she hoped to find freedom and success. On the other hand, Stein addresses how fear can imprison an individual. Ada was so frightened that she let others rob her of happiness. For example, she suffered through stories that Stein describes as being “ not nice.” After her mother’s death, she was left with the burden of caring for a very large family (Stein, n.d). This burden overwhelms her and holds her back from achieving the desires of her heart. Ada’s experiences allow Stein to share her concerns regarding the limits that family obligations place on individual freedom.
Stein and Yezierska adopt the same perspectives to convey their themes. On the one hand, Yezierska expresses optimism and confidence. Through the voice of the narrator in America and I, she confidently asserts that while in the US, she will have the opportunities that her ancestors lacked (Yezierska, 1923). The US will enable her to create and dream instead of working tirelessly for sustenance as she did in Russia. Stein shares Yezierska’s optimism and warmth. While much of Ada focuses on how obligations held Ada back, this piece concludes on a happy and fulfilling note. Ada manages to find happiness and becomes a source of charming stories (Stein, n.d). Through Ada’s life, Stein assures her readers that even in the face of difficulty, it is possible to find fulfilment and joy.
American Modernization: Coming of Age
The issue of slavery has been addressed extensively by various writers. Hughes Langston and William Faulkner are among these writers. In The Negro Speaks of Rivers and Barn Burning respectively, these writers focus on the growth that slaves have undergone despite the hardships that they faced. Among the numerous themes that Barn Burning examines is the psychological and moral maturation that Sarty Snopes underwent. On the other hand, Langston examines how a Negro draws from his experiences to grow his mind and his moral faculties. Overall, the Negro Speaks of Rivers and Barn Burning chronicle the appetite for personal development among black slaves.
In Barn Burning, Snopes is transformed from a timid and resentful boy into a man who recognizes the value of truth. As the short story begins, he is a strong defender of his father and the larger black slave community. He regards his father as the victim of a plot to subjugate the black community. As he is called to the stand to testify, he vows to defend his father at all costs (Faulkner, 1939). As he reflects on the court proceedings, he suggests that offered the same opportunity, he would defend the truth and morality instead of blindly defending his father. This is the essence of moral and psychological maturity. The persona in The Negro Speaks of Rivers also undergoes maturation. He describes how he has known the rivers and how his soul has grown (Hughes, 1921). The growth of his soul indicates personal development. Using simple experiences such as knowing the rivers, this narrator is able to fuel his personal growth.
Snopes ’ maturation extends beyond his commitment to the truth and morality. He also understands the complexity of slavery. Initially, he finds it wrong that his father burns barns (Faulkner, 1939). Furthermore, he resents that his father asks him to lie about the barn burning. However, when they move to the De Spain Mansion, he becomes more enlightened as he gains some insight into the forces that motivate his father (Faulkner, 1939). The oppression that his father and the larger black community face forces him to punish white people by burning their barns. Snopes is able to understand and sympathize with his father. This points to his moral and psychological maturity. In the Negro Speaks of Rivers, the persona describes how he has bathed in the Euphrates, built his hut near the Congo River and looked upon the Nile (Hughes, 1921). By referring to major rivers, the persona is clearly trying to redefine the image of the black community. This community has a long, rich and complex heritage. The persona is similar to Snopes in that he sheds new light on African Americans. While Snopes realizes that blacks are actual victims of oppression and that their resistance is justified, the persona in Hughes’ poem celebrates the heritage of the black community. Both characters demonstrate maturation.
American Postmodernism: Prose and Poetry of Post-World War II America
Families are sources of support and love. However, they can be the cause of agony and frustration. Sylvia Plath’s Daddy and Why I live at the P.O. by Eudora Welty explore family conflicts. Plath’s poem focuses on the struggle of a girl who has learnt that her father was Nazi. This poem sheds light on the intrapersonal conflicts that individuals face as they try to reconcile conflicting identities. While the persona’s father was a member of the Nazi force, she identifies as Jew. She proceeds to lash out at his father. The persona also opens up about how she had always been scared of her father and that she wanted him dead (Plath, 1965). Thanks to the persona’s words, readers learn that family conflicts can set the stage for hate, fear, and death.
Welty also highlights the damage that family conflicts can cause. She relies on the sentiments of the narrator to highlight the dangers of family conflicts. At the beginning of Why I live at the P.O., the narrator states that he had enjoyed warm relationships with her father, mother and uncle (Welty, 1995). This changed when her sister separated with her husband. The tone of the narrator betrays resentment and bitterness. Her sister denined her of the attention and warm treatment that she received from her father, mother and uncle. She laments further that her sister always received what she wanted. The narrator indicates that family conflicts can breed resentment and cause the collapse of relationships.
The bitter words of the persona in Plath’s poem underscore the need for individuals to fix family conflicts urgently. This persona essentially disowns his father. She identifies as a Jew and a gipsy. Basically, she presents herself as a member of the communities that the Nazi government targeted with its murderous campaign. She also contrasts her identity with that of her father. For example, she states “ and your Aryan eye, bright blue” (Plath, 1965). The detached tone that the persona assumes indicates that she does not wish to be linked to her father. The atrocities that he committed have pushed her away.
Conflicts are inevitable. However, when they occur, individuals need to try and address them. The persona in Daddy is in such deep pain that she does not wish to repair her relationship with her father. In the last stanza, she calls his father ‘ bastard ’ and declares ‘I’m through’ (Plath, 1965). This declaration represents resignation. The relationship between the persona and the narrator is so badly damaged that no effort can repair it. Daddy is a reminder of the damage that poor parenting can cause. When they fail to provide good examples for their children, parents can leave them with wounds that never heal.
References
Crane, S. (1897). The open boat.
DuBois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of black folk. The Floating Press.
Ellison, R. (n.d). Battle royal. Retrieved May 23, 2018 from
https://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/selena.anderson/engl2307/readings/battle-royale-by-ralph-ellison
Faulkner, W. (1939). Barn burning. Retrieved May 23, 2018 from
http://jerrywbrown.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Barn-Burning-by-William-Faulkner-1.pdf
Hughes, L. (1921). The Negro speaks of rivers. Retrieved May 23, 2018 from
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44428/the-negro-speaks-of-rivers
Naturalism in American literature. (n.d). Retrieved May 23, 2018 from
https://public.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/natural.htm
Plath, S. (1965). Daddy. Retrieved May 23, 2018 from
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/48999/daddy-56d22aafa45b2
Stein, G. (n.d). Ada. Retrieved May 23, 2018 from
https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/s/stein/gertrude/geography_and_plays/Page_14.html
Toomer, J. (1923). Blood-burning moon. In Cane. New York, NY: Boni and Liveright.
Washington, B. T. (1901). Up from Slavery. The Floating Press.
Welty, E. (1995). Why I live at the P.O. Retrieved May 23, 2018 from
http://art-bin.com/art/or_weltypostoff.html
Yezierska, A. (1923). America and I. Retrieved May 23, 2018 from
https://www.commonlit.org/texts/america-and-I
