Crime is a major source of concern across the globe considering that almost all human societies are prone to criminal tendencies. The nature of crime varies from one culture to another, one society to another and one nation to another depending on the prevailing social, political, economic, and cultural conditions. In this regard, some societies are more prone to crime than others and some periods or eras are more prone to crime than others are. Over time, several theories have been developed to help in explaining and understanding these variations in crime patterns. Some of the most notable theories are modernization theory, which was developed by Walt W. Rostow, and world systems theory, which was developed by Immanuel Wallerstein. An analysis and a comparison of these two theories help in establishing their core tenets as well as their take on the variations in crime across different cultures.
Tenets of Modernization Theory
Modernization theory is a theory that is used to offer explanations about how societies and nations to transit from traditional-based to modern-based societies or nations. The theory is traced to 1950’s and it is attributed to several American social scientists most notably Walt W. Rostow (Baryshnikova, nd). Modernization theory is a useful framework that is used to explain how industrial societies drawn from both Western Europe and North America developed. The theory establishes that societies tend to develop from simple forms and progress through different and predictable stages to become complex. According to Baryshnikova (nd), a nation usually goes through five stages of development namely traditional, pre-conditions for take-off, take-off, maturation, and mass production and consumption.
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Further, the proponents of this theory are of the idea that for a nation or a society to become modern, several factors must be at interplay. The most important factors associated with modernization are political, economic, technological, and social changes. In particular, the theorists concluded that the process of modernization incorporates urbanization, industrialization, bureaucracy, rationalization, adoption of democracy and mass consumption. These aspects of modernization are crucial as they help traditional or pre-modern societies to evolve and become contemporary western societies that exist today.
Modernization theory rides on various assumptions that are related to political, social, economic, and technological aspects and factors. Education and development of social media are core aspects of the modernization theory considering that they contribute to more democratic political frameworks. These frameworks help citizens to demand fairness and inclusivity, concepts that are crucial in the development of nations. Lorenz (2006) asserts that there is an improvement, sophistication, and accessibility of communication and transport networks and systems. This improvement translates to a more mobile and urban-based population, which is associated with family disintegration and an increased, focus on social and economic life.
Bureaucracy in organizations is an important economic aspect that is associated with modernization owing to division of labor within an increasingly complex society. The concept of bureaucracy is rooted both in technological and scientific rationality which then tends to affect the place of religion in the society (Zapf, 2004). The last feature of modernization is cash-driven markets where goods and services are exchanged and in turn, creates a capitalist economy. Overall, all these social, political scientific and economic aspects have been adopted to justify modernization theory. Undeveloped and underdeveloped nations across the world believe that it is possible to implement similar structures and processes to those found in Western societies.
Tenets of World Systems Theory
Immanuel Wallerstein developed world systems theory in 1979 as a response to the critics of the dependency theory. This theory by Wallerstein rides on the assumption that it is important to consider the world as a unified system as opposed to focusing on individual countries. In particular, Wallersten (2004) establishes that it is wrong to assume that poor countries are so due to exploitation by developed countries. Instead, individuals should focus on global economic institutions and corporations considering that they have become too powerful. In this regard, global corporations have superseded governments as they are able to transcend nation-states and national boundaries and as such, government has been left powerless. Wallerstein (2004) indicates that global economic institutions have managed to form a modern world system, which not only affects the poor nations but also the rich nations.
The world systems theory is based on the concept of international division of labor that determines the relationship between three types of nations. The developed nations which are referred to as the core nations tend to monopolize the production and manufacture of goods as well as controlling world wages. Core nations are presented as being wealthy, powerful, and independent meaning that they are not prone to outside control. According to El-Ojeili (2014), these nations have been able to tap into and deal with bureaucracies something that has helped boost their economies and militaries. Of importance is the fact that core nations have both physical and intellectual resources, which allows for technological development and advancement. As a result, core nations are at an advantage as compared to non-core or undeveloped nations.
The second type of nation as outlined in the world systems theory is the semi-peripheral nations such as South Africa and Brazil. The main characteristic associated with these nations is the fact that they have urban centers that resemble those of core nations but still have rural poverty areas associated with peripheral countries. This characteristic then puts these countries in the midway and they often strive to become dominant just like the core countries. History has repeatedly proven that it is possible for semi-peripheral nations to become core nations with the right structures and frameworks. Peripheral nations, which are the least, developed nations mark the third type of nations in the world systems theory. These nations tend to have a high percentage of uneducated populations who end up providing cheap and unskilled labor for the core nations (Wallersten, 2004). These nations demonstrate high levels of social inequalities due to weak governments incapable of controlling the countries’ economies owing to influence from core countries.
Modernization Theory on the Variations of Crime across Different Cultures
Modernization theory is a framework that can be adapted to understand the variation of crimes across different cultures at different times. Modernization as a concept establishes that different societies are at different stages of development and each stage presents a different aspect in criminal justice. Shahidullah (2014) asserts that modernization as a concept has brought about social, political, and economic changes, which have in turn led to a change in crime patterns. With these kinds of development comes an increase in criminal activities as they present new avenues for criminality.
Nations that have achieved tremendous economic growth in the last few decades tend to report an increase in property and violent crimes. The reason for an increase in criminal tendencies is attributed to the disruption of collective conscience, as well as the breakdown the previous consensus on the importance of social values. The move from a traditional society to modern society is more often than not associated with a normless society, which Durkheim termed as anomie (Howard, Newman, and Pridemore, 2000). The resultant anomie creates avenues for the increase of deviance and crime and in particular property and violent crimes.
Crime and criminal tendencies across cultures are associated with modernization theory to a certain degree. The reason for this proposition is the fact that industrialization which a major aspect of modernization creates an avenue for the mass production of goods. The excess in goods means that there is a steady supply of commodities, which creates a chance for increased opportunities for theft. The weakened social control, which was available in traditional societies considering that everyone is focused on personal economic goals allows for increase in property crimes. According to (Howard, Newman, and Pridemore, 2000), the levels in variation of crime rates are related to the development stage that each country is at a certain period. In the early stages of modernization, the traditional way of life is undermined owing to industrialization and urbanization.
Individuals who are moving from the rural to urban areas tend to carry forward violent traditions associated with the rural areas setting motion for violent crimes. Lorenz (2006) claims that the later stages of development transform the crime environment, patterns as it allow for the rise, and increase of property crimes enforces this notion. The final stage of modernization contributes to a sharp decline in crime and violence considering that the rural immigrants have now adjusted to the demands and norms of urban life. In this regard, it is possible that in the future crime rates will drop significantly, as the urban people become more civilized and dedicated to having a stable society.
Supporters of modernization theory believe that this theory does not in any contributed to an increase in crime but rather a reduction in violent and criminal tendencies. In particular, contemporaries of modernization theory establish that modernization is associated with civilization considering that the capitalist economies attempt to reduce interpersonal violence. According to Baryshnikova nd), capitalist economies are of the idea that crime and violence tend to undermine mutual trust onto which markets base their operations. For this reason, monopolized and powerful nations have managed to create stable frameworks that enhance effective and dignified social interactions. When it comes to micro-levels, the capitalist economies have managed to refine customs and manners resulting in more civilized populations. Additionally, modernization theory establishes that modernization leads to urbanization, which in turn decreases interpersonal contacts and ties among acquaintances and contacts. This reduction in interaction means that the chances for violence and crime are reduced significantly.
World Systems Theory on the Variations of Crime across Different Cultures
World systems theory can be used to explain the variations of crimes across different cultures owing to its intentional division of states into three categories. The types and patterns of crime vary from each category depending on the motivating social, political, cultural, and economic factors. The core nations, which are considered, developed in this case take to take the role of parental figurehead establishing how masses ought to behave and relate (Wallerstein, 2004). These nations have evolved and they are dealing with less barbaric and violent crimes like human trafficking, slavery, corruption, and discrimination. Developed nations feel that forms of inhumane crimes do not fit within the progressivity of the twenty-first century. El-Ojeili (2014) emphasizes that peripheral nations, which are struggling with social, political, and economic challenges, are prone to inhumane crimes as they seek to survive. Most of the citizens of these countries are a hopeless lot owing to unemployment, illiteracy, poor social services, poor governance, and overreliance on international aid. Owing to these issues, most of the citizens resort to violence and crime in an attempt to survive the harsh realities they face.
Industrialization, globalization, and urbanization, which are at the center of the world systems theory, have helped to determine the patterns of crimes in various nations. In particular, the world is now grappling with the reality that crime has taken up an international outlook. According to Wallerstein (2004), the world is dealing with transnational and national terrorism and crime, which then requires regional, national, and international efforts in curbing the increasing crime. Theorists trace this new wave of criminal acts to the world systems theory, which have helped to segregate nations depending on their economic influence. Shahidullah (2014), asserts that periphery nations have come to the realization that they are at the mercy of core nations who monopolize trade thus determining economic. The core states, which have well- developed and equipped military, tend to use their influence to force the weaker nations to create favorable policies. In this case, the weak states continue to depend on the core states for survival, something that has not gone down well. In fact, some weak states have had this kind of tilted domination have resorted to terrorism so that their’ voices could be heard.
World systems theory rides on historical underpinnings, which saw the birth and development of capitalism. Colonization helped to create an artificial notion that there is a ladder between developing nations and developed nations with the aim of maintaining their influence and power. For the longest capitalism has witnessed unequal exchanges as well as exploitative relationships between core, semi-periphery, and periphery nations. In turn, the core nations become wealthier while the periphery nations continue to languish in poverty, the artificial ladder establishes that it is not possible for developing nations to achieve exponential growth and be at par with the developed countries. At times, the core nations with the aim of maintaining their influence may ensure that the poor nations embrace crime, as it is the surest way to remain poor (El-Ojeili, 2014). Poor countries tend to have high corruption rates, which mean that a few individuals leaving the masses in abject poverty embezzle the funds set for development project.
Developed nations are pretentious to step in to help the situation by giving these nations huge sums of loans that will never be repaid. In this way, the developing nations become subject and answerable to developed nations, something that enhances the power and influence the core nations to have. Instead of focusing on development issues, governments in the periphery nations pend a significant part of their funds to fight crime, hire law enforcement officers, build prisons, and pay off international debts. On the other end, the core nations then resort to intensive border control and international laws to ensure that criminal elements do not enter into their countries. In this way can conclude that crime then becomes a reserve of the semi-peripheral and peripheral nation although it is the making of the core nations.
Assessment of the Theory That Offers the Best Explanation of Variations of Crime across Different Cultures
World systems theory and modernization theory would be said to contribute equally to the understanding of the variations in crime across different cultures. While world systems theory focuses on the division of states into three categories, modernization theory establishes the impact of modernization on crime. When one considers these two theories, one cannot fail to notice that they are related and interdependent. Modernization, which is related to industrialization, globalization, and urbanization, has helped in creating world systems (Shahidullah, 2014). Nations that industrialized early enough such as those in Europe and North America cut for themselves a top-notch as compared to those that did not. Having realized the concept of mass production, these nations sought markets and in turn created market dominance and dependency on the part of the undeveloped nations. From here, the industrialized nations, took to colonization as they had the knowledge, equipment, and structures to continue their dominance. Over time, the developed nations weakened the developing nations by subjecting them to their leadership.
Modernization has helped to create very different societies, which no longer ride on traditional views that helped to hold societies together. People have been taught to strive so that the can be assured of better lives which are usually elusive in the poorer societies. At times, people are forced to resort to violence and crime especially in societies with limited resources and opportunities. Howard, Newman, and Pridemore (2000) assert that world systems as currently constituted are largely divisive and discriminative which limit nations from moving to the next highest level. As a result, there is stagnation for peripheral nations as the top position is a preserve for particular nations. The core nations have done everything possible to curtail the efforts of developing countries who try to move from their category to the next.
Some of the most visible deterrents for social mobility include economic sanctions, market dominance, direct foreign investments, and international criminal law. In this regard then, undeveloped and developing nations have their fates sealed as they are now under the mercy of the developed nations. Wolfang (2004) is of the idea that some individuals who are tired of this dominance resort to terrorism with the desire to have their voices heard. The terrorism is usually directed to the core nations, as the developing nations believe that these core nations are driving a capitalist agenda. These criminal tendencies tend to receive international attention and the core nations do not spare their funds and time to fight off criminal elements. Such drastic moves are aimed at showing the peripheral nations that the lines between core, semi-peripheral and peripheral states have been drawn and they are not open for review.
Modernization theory and world-systems theory contribute to the understanding of the variations of crime in different cultures as their arguments are based on differences in societies. These two theories establish that human societies go through phases and each phase determines the kind of crimes that are present at the time. Societies that are in their formative stages are said to be involved in brutal and inhumane crimes such as slavery, human trafficking, murders, robberies, and corruption (Baryshnikova, nd). On the other hand, the nations that are in their later stages of development have become so civilized that the masses cannot consider committing crimes.
In spite of the desire to progress through the development stages, most nations have been trapped into remaining in the formative stages, as they have not managed to navigate through the latter stages. The reason for this stagnation is the fact that the nations that are already at the top are committed to maintaining their position. These nations feel threatened by any nation that is keen on moving from semi-periphery state to a core state. Such a nation is sure to receive economic, political, and social backlash so that it remains in its state. At times, the nations at the semi-periphery may then resort to terrorism to let the core nations know that they are unstoppable in their journey to become and be recognized as core or developed nations.
In conclusion, crime as a part of human existence can be understood through different theories most notably the world systems theory and the modernization theory. These two theories are used to explain how crime varies from one culture to another over time. The world-systems theory, which was developed in 1979, establishes that the nations that make up the world are divided into three categories, core, semiperiphery, and periphery. Core nations are the powerful, wealthy highly militarized and developed nations with intellectuals who control ad monopolize the economic spheres. The semiperipheral nations tend to have urban centers just like the core states but still have rural poverty a characteristic of peripheral nations. On the other hand, peripheral nations have both urban and rural poverty, weak governments and social inequalities. There seems to be permanent in this categorization as it is not easy to move to the next higher level, as there are mechanisms to halt this attempt. It is for this reason that some semiperiphery nations engage in terrorism with an aim of coercing the core nation to do away with the rigidity. The modernization theory can be used to explain crime variation in cultures depending on the development stage a society is at a particular time. Nations at the initial stages of development tend to engage in inhumane crimes while those at middle stage get involved in property crimes owing to the availability of goods and weakened social control. Nations that are at the latter stages of development are more civilized and the chances for crimes are slim as they are pursuing economic and political dominance. Overall, crime variation across cultures is dependent on the society’s developmental stage or potion in the world systems order.
References
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Lorenz, C. (2006) ‘Won't you tell me, where have all the good times gone’? On the advantages and disadvantages of modernization theory for history. Rethinking History , 10(2):171-200.
Shahidullah, S. M. (2014). Comparative Criminal Justice Systems: Global and Local Perspectives. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
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