Chapter 4 of Muhsin Mahdi’s book Ibn Khaldûn’s Philosophy of History explores Khaldun’s ideas about culture. It is a presentation of how Khaldun understood the science of culture and its constituent elements. This article reviews the chapter and the ideas presented in it. The author explores history and Muqaddimah as a means towards effectively demonstrating conclusions he makes about the new science, presenting man as essential to the evolution of culture.
The chapter starts with a comparative analysis of history and the science of culture, asserting that history precedes culture in ‘the order of being’. The author notes that events in history are the result of their underlying factors and nature. The chapter, in studying the science of culture, seeks to establish the issues of the subject, its processes and underlying principles, and finally its ultimate goal and accomplishment mechanisms.
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The enquiry begins by the establishment of some basics, called the Muqaddimah . The presentation of these principles, however, is not posited as part and parcel of the science of culture. The necessity of understanding them is created by the fact that the author uses them to demonstrate his conclusions about the new science. The basics as presented in order are that a society is an important necessity; that man and society are internally and externally related via a physical code and a physical environment, respectively; and that man and society have a connection through his relationship with the supernatural.
Man is differentiated from animals by his intellect. The intellect has two faculties, the practical and the theoretical. The practical is the first to develop, and is the basis of man’s creativity and actions, aspects which form culture. The practical is further divided into experiential and discerning reason. The discerning reason enables him to protect himself and make his living. The experiential, on the other hand, enables him to learn, mostly through experiences.
Man’s possession of these two faculties enables him to exhibit his ability to make and do. His actions are ordered, unlike those of animals. Man can also organize his relationships with others and discern causal relationships. Additionally, he learns from his experiences and has the ability to differentiate between good and evil. Apart from reason, which is the most noble of man’s faculties, he also has other faculties which determine his behavior and creativity. These other faculties work in cooperation or in opposition to reason. They include the vegetative, the sensitive, and the appetitive. The faculties are man’s inherent abilities to desire.
The chapter subjects culture to man, terming it as his dependent object, which exists because the man exists. Culture is consequently typically about man and what is natural to him. It is composed of man’s nature and whatever else makes him distinct from animals.
The basic principles are started off with a critical discussion of the Muslim understanding of history. This introduction serves to prepare the reader for the insights of the new science, which Khaldûn presents in the text after the introduction. The new science of culture is intended to systematically explore the concerns of human interaction with the objective of providing solutions to the problems. The author differentiates history from culture, asserting that historical events are a beginning and not an end to the discernment and development of the science of culture. History, therefore, is a prerequisite for the existence of culture and its dynamics.
Khaldûn wrote that his new science assumed that there existed some comparatively stable elements that were discernible in certain social and environmental situations, elements which created collective and group behaviors. This implies that culture is limited to particular regions. Khaldun believed that culture and its associated components and behaviors were created out of human reasoning and desires, enabling its presentation as a science. This kind of thinking credited Khaldun the reputation of being among the pioneers of social science although his basis of the discipline was different from that of modern social scientists. He argued that civilization, which was exemplified in cities, according to him, was the only way through which the latent, rational, and essential needs of the human soul could be satisfied. This, he wrote, was contrary to primitive culture, which encompassed survival instincts and the satisfaction of the primary desires of man. Civilization is characterized as a diverse process of development, the achievement of natural objectives and limits, and ultimately dissolution.
Muqaddimah presents culture evolution alongside the development and decline of the political states, the rise and fall of societal unity, the fight for leadership power, and the concept of the commonwealth. Khaldun explored all these aspects via the lens of religion, and in particular, Islam. The holy war, as instituted in Islam, was meant to spread the religion, and the community leader at the spiritual level had to seek political power in an effort to acquire the means and the resources for the holy war. Many philosophers with a background in Islam, like Khaldun,, understood the nation and authority created by the prophet essentially as a political entity and order. He appreciated the necessity of the exercise of coercion and the implementation of an authoritative system through a common and undisputed leader, for the maintenance of peace and order among the people. His science questioned the final cause of human associations and societal groupings. However, the new science, as he presented it, failed to offer a common and convincing formula for the public good. Additionally, it failed to formulate the necessary and adequate moderation and justice for the ideal and reasonable regime. The author submitted that there existed some lessons that were not possible through history. The science of culture, consequently, paved the way for political philosophy. This development was only recognizable by those who understood political philosophy.
Khaldun confined himself to the contemporary traditions of his time in exploring the Muqaddimah . The philosophy of Islam could potentially be more real, progressive, and political than it was assumed at the time. Khaldun, in the chapter, exemplified the traditions and descriptive elements of the often platonic Muslim society of his time. He had the goal of providing a resolution to the complexities and issues that weighed down the discipline of philosophy. Furthermore, he sought to provide a clear definition of the object and reach of the discipline. The writing style of the chapter is not straightforward, and reveals just as much as it conceals. The work can be seen as illustrating philosophy through commenting about its own content, providing the ultimate cause of culture which is not exactly the end.
Bibliography
Mahdi, M. (1971). The Science of Culture: Its Subject Matter and Problems. In M. Mahdi, Ibn Khaldûn’s Philosophy of History (pp. 171-224). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
