The term cancer is a general terminology that describes cellular alterations that give rise to uninhibited division and growth of body cells. Some result in hasty growth, while others divide or slow down the rate of growth or division. Smith et al., (2015) argued that the uncontrolled growth or division causes impairment to body tissues, damage to various body systems such as the immune system, and tumors. Body cells have their mechanism of dying and replacement. The cells receive instructions that lead to their death leading to replacement for better functioning cells. According to Smith (2015) cancerous cells often do not have components that instruct them to die or divide. It thus leads to their build-up, using nutrients and oxygen meant for other cells. They may appear in one section and later spread to other regions of the body, such as lymph nodes.
Diagnosis and Staging of Cancer
Cancer Diagnosis
Cancer diagnosis starts with a general overview of one’s family medical background and personal details. A lab test, such as imaging scans can be used for the lab test procedure. A recommendation for biopsy can be used to ascertain the existence of cancer in a patient.
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A lab test is carried out on body substances such as body fluids, urine, and blood that can help in making a diagnosis ( Vineis & Wild 2014) . Testing body fluids such as urine help in detecting tumor makers that produce cancerous cells. However, lab results are never a sure way of diagnosing cancer.
Imaging tests involve taking pictures of suspected areas of a patient’s body to try and detect the presence of a tumor. Images can be made through PET scan, Ultrasound and CT scan, bone scan, X-rays, Ultrasound, and PET scan.
Biopsy: This is a diagnostic procedure in which body tissue samples are taken and run through various tests to ascertain the presence of cancer cells. Biopsy tissues can be made by use of a needle, surgery, or endoscopy.
Cancer Staging
After the diagnosis, a treatment plan is then outlined by first figuring out the cancer stage or risk group, or grade of the tumor. Other tests may be carried out on cancer to determine the presence of other genetic markers (Smith, 2015). Stage refers to the level of cancer, for example, how vast the cancer region is and its spread. Staging helps planning the treatment, identifying clinical options of treatment, and understanding the risk, seriousness, and survival risk. Staging is determined by carrying out various tests that include lab tests, x-rays, and procedures. Multiple staging systems are used for different cancer or tumors. However, according to Vineis and Wild (2014) the majority of the staging systems entail information such as the size of the tumor, tumor grade, cell type, and location of cancer. TNM System is used often. Only brain, blood, and spinal have dissimilar stage systems. T characterizes the size and extent of the cancerous cells. N denotes to the amount of lymph nodes having abnormal cells, and M means to the spread of cancer to other regions of the body. According to Smith (2015) different methodologies are also used in describing cancer in detail. For instance, TNM is used in combination with five less comprehensive phases. They include stages 0, I, II, III, and IV ( Vineis & Wild, 2014) . For example, for stage IV, it means cancer occupies other regions of the body. Different ways of staging cancer are in categories. They include In situ, Localized, Regional, Distant, and Unknown. For example, for distant, it means the tumor is located and spread in remote locations of the body.
Complications of cancer, the side effects of treatment, and methods to lessen physical and psychological effects
Complications and Treatment of Cancer
Cancer treatment can take many forms depending on the stage and how far it has advanced. While some types of cancer only require one treatment, others may involve various treatments. Vineis and Wild (2014) stated that t he primary examples of cancer treatment comprise of surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and hormone. For surgery, a section of the affected part of the body is removed. Radiation entails the use of high radiation to shrink tumors and kill the cancer cells.
On the other hand, Smith (2015) argued that chemotherapy entails the use of drugs aimed at killing cancer cells. Generally, treating cancer involves a lot of learning and thinking from the patient. It often involves in-depth engagement with the doctor to ascertain the best type of treatment.
Complications:
Cancer treatment can cause various complications. They include pain, chemical modifications in the boy, difficulty in breathing, fatigue, weight loss, constipation, and diarrhea, in addition to nervous and brain complications ( Vineis & Wild, 2014) . Other complications include the return of cancer, strange immunity of the body, and continued spread of the cancer cells.
Lessening the Physiological and physical effects
Physical effects include change of appetite, fatigue, and pain, sexuality, and change in appearance. Physiological effects include anxiety and fear, panic, anger, blame, sadness, and guilt. Smith (2015) adds that o thers include loss of control, loneliness, and depression. The best remedy to lessening the physiological and physical effect of cancer is offering patients sufficient support, encouraging them not to lose hope and walking with them during a difficult period. It is also essential to engage the patient in positive and constructive activities that will help them keep engaged.
Factors that Contribute to Mortality and Yearly rates of Cancer in America
Changing lifestyle in America is the number one cause of high cancer rates. Breasts cancer in women is the most prevalent while in men, it is prostate cancer. However, the primary cause death is lung cancer in both genders, a situation that includes even non-smokers. Skin cancer is prevalent too and causes numerous diseases in America. Breast cancer accounted for over 255,190 in the year 2017 ( Meester et al., 2015) .
From the above analysis, it is evident that smoking is the leading case of high rates of cancer. For example, over 41000 deaths were registered in 2017 due to lung cancer. According to Meester et al., (2015) prostate cancer led to approximately 26740 deaths, while rectal cancer led to 50000 deaths. Pancreatic cancer is the fourth killer cancer and led to over 43000 deaths in 2017. Smoking is the number one cause of cancer among women. America has seen a steep rise in smokers since 2000. Among men, prostate cancer is very prevalent. The most frequent cause of death among men is lung cancer ( Meester et al., 2015) . In 2017 alone, over 84000 men died of lung cancer in comparison to only 26800 who succumbed to prostate cancer. Smoking causes various types of cancer and is not limited to lung cancer only. Other causes include chemicals in drinking water, radon gas from decaying uranium and distantly genetically modified foods.
How the American Cancer Society (ACS) might provide education and support
ACS can play a vital role in creating awareness on the primary causes of cancer and especially the pivotal role smoking has in the development and growth of cancer. The adage is essential towards this effort of preventing the many cancer deaths; prevention is better than cure. The only way to avoid increased cancer in America is empowering individuals with the right knowledge of the leading causes of cancer. The American Cancer Society can engage locals in prevention programs that aim at educating people on the leading causes of cancer. At the same time, it can engage locals in the best healthy lifestyle that will not trigger cancer growth. The programs should be community-based services that are combined with healthy lifestyle guidelines. Often these programs are best utilized by locals if and when they are integrated with health-based instructions. For example, society should target young adults in colleges and universities who most often engage in a reckless lifestyle where most people start partaking in smoking and unhealthy lifestyles. If targeted, these young groups will no doubt live understanding the dangers of unhealthy living and lifestyle.
How the nursing process is utilized to provide safe and effective care for cancer patients across the life span
There are five significant steps in nursing processes that aims at a systematic guide towards patient center care. They include assessment/evaluation phase, diagnosis phase, planning phase, implementation, and evaluation phase. Assessment entails critical analysis that is both objective and subjective ( Vineis & Wild, 2014) . Data is obtained from the patient, and through the use of a concept-based curriculum; a comprehensive assessment is carried out. Cancer patients do require an in-depth analysis to assist in general and objective data valuation.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis entails utilizing the best clinical judgment for planning and enacting the recommended or required patient care initiatives. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is used to provide a foundation for a holistic approach to catering for the patient’s emotional and physical needs (Smith, 2015). Due to the physiological responsibility that comes with cancer, patients require innate and fundamental needs to help them cope with the challenges of their condition.
Planning
The plan outlined for a cancer patient needs to be specific, measurable, action-oriented, results-oriented, and timely. Considering the emotional burden that comes with cancer as a medical condition, outlined plans need to conform to the treatment plan to help attain positive results.
Implementation
Implementation step entails undertaking the outlined nursing interventions. It thus needs the application of precise EDP standards, treatment protocol, and medication administration. According to Smith et al., (2015) cancer patients require direct patient-centered care. Stringent and timely intervention measures are thus required to achieve the precise results of treatment.
Evaluation
The last step in caring for a cancer patient is very critical. The healthcare provider analyzes and ensures that all desired and outlined results are attained. If need be, the process may involve reassessment contingent on the status or condition of the patient, which may be following a newly discovered treatment information. For example, Vineis and Wild (2014) state that in the case a new tumor growth is detected, an entire
How undergraduate education in liberal arts and science studies contributes to the foundation of nursing knowledge and prepares nurses to work with patients utilizing the nursing process
Liberal arts and science-based subject’s help nurses stretch their thinking, adapt to conditions, and develop flexibility in their skills and knowledge. Due to the ever-increasing demands on healthcare, nurses need to remain competent, skilled, and knowledgeable in a vast array of fields. For example, acquiring leadership skills is critical towards helping a nurse address the rapid changes in the area of healthcare, ambiguity, and complexity occasioned with the ever-increasing rate of ailments. Other science-based disciples and arts help nurses become comfortable and blossom in their career. They also help nurses forge relevant links and appreciate the strength of knowledge in various fields. It serves an important factor in helping them cope with their actions and feelings and ways in which it can impact on patient-centered care.
References
Meester, R. G., Doubeni, C. A., Zauber, A. G., Goede, S. L., Levin, T. R., Corley, D. A., ... & Lansdorp ‐ Vogelaar, I. (2015). Public health impact of achieving 80% colorectal cancer screening rates in the United States by 2018. Cancer , 121 (13), 2281-2285. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cncr.29336
Smith, H. R. (2015). Depression in cancer patients: Pathogenesis, implications and treatment. Oncology letters , 9 (4), 1509-1514. https://www.spandidos-publications.com/ol/9/4/1509?text=fulltext
Smith, R. A., Manassaram ‐ Baptiste, D., Brooks, D., Doroshenk, M., Fedewa, S., Saslow, D., ... & Wender, R. (2015). Cancer screening in the United States, 2015: a review of current American cancer society guidelines and current issues in cancer screening. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians , 65 (1), 30-54. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4148914/
Vineis, P., & Wild, C. P. (2014). Global cancer patterns: causes and prevention. The Lancet , 383 (9916), 549-557. https://www.antsz.hu/data/cms62790/Lancet.pdf
