Officer-Involved Shootings in the United States

According to a recent study by Ridgeway (2016) , police officers make an estimated 83 million face-to-face contact with the public annually. These reports also indicate that out of this population, two percent reported that police subjected them to excessive force or witnessed inhumane shootings under unclear circumstances. Since a majority of these killings involve suspects who were not wielding weapons at the time of the altercation, evidence suggests that these actions are targeted towards people from specific racial backgrounds. The topic is very important because it seeks to establish why there has been an increase in the rate of officer-involved shootings in the U.S. In addition to this, it also highlights the issue with reference to racism, especially the black community, since a majority of victims from these cases are black.

In the American justice system, officers have been provided with the necessary training and equipment so that they can choose the best response option depending on the situation, rather than resort to extreme measures ( Fagan & Campbell, 2020 ). Instead of using these resources the right way, officers are better equipped and prepared to use deadly force instead of assessing a situation and apprehending a suspect peacefully. In today's society, police brutality is associated with verbal abuse and no attempts to use de-escalation techniques. Following the rising cases of police shootings, the issue has become the subject of division and vigorous debates in the U.S.

The number of deaths that have occurred from the use of lethal force is still uncertain, but the estimated number of violent deaths still continues to increase every year. For example, 965 civilians were shot and killed by police in the year 2015 alone, out of which 90 were unarmed ( Fryer Jr, 2019 ). This shows that some encounters with law enforcement personnel always end violently. Such scenarios have huge implications for a nation's economic, social, and political stability. Whenever an officer shoots and kills an unarmed suspect, civil disturbance and unrest, especially when people can prove excessive force or injustice, were committed. The incident and events that follow form a continuum of flashpoints that may trigger incidents leading to civil disorder.

According to Fryer Jr (2019) , these flashpoints include the incident, investigation, release of results, the court's decision or jury, and the government's reaction towards this disorder. Loss of life creates tension between the police and community of the victim and, in most cases, leads to riots or public backlash. The paper also seeks to establish whether officers are more likely to shoot minority civilians as compared to whites and if racial bias exists in police departments.

The circumstances surrounding officer-involved shootings can be explored by analyzing the age, mental condition, and race of the victim and the officer's race ( Johnson et al., 2019 ). Witness accounts are also critical factors to consider during such investigations. During such occurrences, it is also important to assess the concurrent action of the officers who were at the scene at the time of the shooting, the statements they made, and the actions they took. People need to understand that racism is wired into the American mind and, as such, contributes to some of the racism issues that happen every day. The truth is, not much can be done to reduce racist behavior because people are not willing to accept minority groups as equals. In his examination of human behavior's biological implications, Fagan & Campbell (2020 ) notes that regardless of one's skin color, racism structures how most Americans think. 

Evidence of racism can be seen from the rates at which law enforcement officers kill minorities in the U.S. In affected states, police shoot and kill black people three times the rate at which they kill white people. Police are conditioned to live in a racist and structured world on black-American prejudice and, as such, are prone to shoot African Americans. Even though researchers have established that there is no relationship between officer shootings and racism, there is still no evidence to explain why a majority of cases involving police brutality and killings involve individuals from minority groups. 

Body 

An examination of officer-involved shootings requires the examination of victim race, their involvement in violent crime, characteristics of their community, and the situational factors leading to the use of lethal force ( Hatch & Dickson, 2017 ). In the current system, both prosecution and public attention have turned to the officer involved, but people have not been keen to establish why some officers are more likely to be involved in these incidences as compared to others. It is critical to identify the risk factors involved so that the best solution could be implemented. In their research, Ridgeway (2016) note that even though the age, race, and experience of an officer matter, the precinct and role they are assigned increase the risk of getting involved in such situations. It is, however, not certain of these factors increase the increasing cases of shootings. It is important to establish if an officer's assignment impacts their likelihood of using lethal force and if the time, place, assignment, and context can aid in getting a clearer picture of such situations.

According to research conducted by Muhammad (2019) , many police departments have absolved their officers of shooting without case claiming the suspects were mentally unwell and posed a threat to the officer and public. However, it is imperative to understand that not all fatal encounters involve individuals with mental health issues. Sometimes, they occur when officers are conducting investigations or are in pursuit of criminals and, in the process, mistakenly assume an innocent civilian is carrying a concealed weapon. Making such a judgment on a decedent has led to many individuals' deaths, including a twelve-year-old boy, Tamir Rice, who was shot and killed by police claiming he had a weapon, whereas it was clear that he was unarmed ( Muhammad, 2019 ). It is indeed true that there are others who may be carrying concealed weapons, so precautions should be taken, but not in the manner that most do.

Such actions lead the public to question the police department's credibility because they threaten the safety of those, they have sworn t protect. A majority of other casualties such as Freddie Gray, Eric Garner, and Michael Brown were also not armed, yet were killed by law enforcement personnel who claimed they were armed and dangerous ( Moore, 2005 ). So, what is the justification that police have to commit these fatal killings? Do they have probable cause to believe a suspect poses a threat to the public or officer, or are they just authorized to draw their guns, shoot and ask questions later? When the use of force becomes deadly, courts and other investigative bodies such as the FBI and CIA are forced to intervene and determine whether the officer involved reacted reasonably and if their shortfall was a reasonable assessment to shoot. It is essential to look at the interactions and objective circumstances leading to shooting as well as the reasonability of the heuristics applied at the moment so that the decision to shoot could be taken.

Muhammad (2019) notes that even after controlling the circumstances leading to each shooting, evidence still suggests that fatal police shootings are racialized. Based on these incidences, there is the question of whether officers apply reasonableness at different standards depending on a suspect's ethnic background. For instance, the controversial shooting in 2014 where Michael Brown and Trayvon Martin were killed spurred political and public tension, generating mixed reactions and eliciting emotional responses from the black community ( Petersson et al., 2017 ). The main reason why this occurred was that the victims were both from the African American community, and as such, it represented a case of racism against blacks. Such killings have led to heated debates on the prospect of law enforcement bias in using deadly force against African Americans. The disturbing fact is that this kind of inhumanity is disproportionately practiced only when police encounter blacks. The larger social structure of these killings points to a police organization that promotes individualized killings.

There are distinct patterns in the demographic and social structures of the places where officer killings take place, and these factors indicate race and ethnicity are key factors that increase the prevalence of this form of brutality ( Muhammad, 2019 ). Similarly, the killing of Saheed Vassel at Crown heights sparked uproar from the public. There was, however, debate on his death since the neighbourhood had, for decades, been a hotspot for racial, class, and political conflict. According to research by Fryer Jr (2019) , black suspects are more likely to be shot and killed by police as compared to suspects from other racial groups. In all these cases, there are no reasonable circumstances to warrant the action, and as such, this acts as concrete evidence to show that officer shootings are rooted in racism.

Based on this information, it is evident that there is a social factor contributing to police killings, and this is often linked to race. Discrimination is still prevalent in the country, and instead of ensuring every citizen receives equal treatment, the police promote this despicable behavior by either brutalizing, mistreating, or killing innocent, unarmed civilians.

In his study, Fryer Jr (2019) seeks to establish whether these killings can be reduced through training and remediation. Is it possible for the system to introduce an evidence-based training curriculum to law enforcement t officers to ad in reducing police bias and the use of deadly force on African Americans? The introduction of the Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) model has made some success in remediating the recurring instances of police killings, especially cases involving mentally disturbed crises. Drawing on this success, there is need to establish whether the same approach can be used to reduce civilian killings, especially individuals from the African American community. The prospect of remediation despite the differences in types of race and incidences of the suspects who are killed should be explored by analyzing the interaction between reasonableness of fatal police shootings and the race. To effectively address this issue, one first needs to describe the constitutional regulations that guide police action.

From the cases that were mentioned above, the objectively reasonable standard seeks to establish whether the criminal justice system contravenes the Fourth Amendment in situations when officers use lethal force. It questions the jurisprudential landscape of reasonableness and evaluates disparities in officer shootings based on disparate and subjective notions of the actions that are considered reasonable and the circumstances leading to the incident ( Fagan & Campbell, 2020 ). This standard is objective and provides a sound explanation of racial disparities in these killings by offering evidence on why law enforcement personnel make decisions to shoot individuals from African American communities.

In a recent poll conducted by Fagan & Campbell (2020) , a majority of Americans said that racism still remains a major problem in society and the political realm. Race relations in the United States seem to be getting worse, and very little attention is paid to racial issues. For instance, a number of incidences have spurred public unrest, as seen from the way individuals from minority groups are treated. Just recently, two African American individuals were arrested for sitting in a coffeeshop at Starbucks. Others for barbecuing in a park and taking a nap in yale common room. These incidences were all caught on social media and have set off a wave of protests from the public, prompting a national conversation on racism in today's world. According to Muhammad (2019) , race is the biggest source of division in the country, with four out of ten African Americans saying they have been treated unfairly in a restaurant or store because of their ethnicity.

Racial discrimination is, therefore, not just evident in public spaces but also in workplaces.

The white community's superior complex against minority groups such as blacks and Hispanics is still dominant in the U.S. People may have the notion that everyone receives equal treatment in the U.S. and that racism is a thing of the past, but this is not the case. In the real sense, discrimination still exists, and it is prevalent in schools, at homes, at work, and in many societies. The problem is stemmed from society's fabric and has grown to become a disease that slowly erodes the morals of equal treatment. For instance, even though the killing of George Floyd was not a shooting, it provides clear evidence of discrimination. A Minneapolis officer allegedly kneed him on his neck for almost nine minutes until he lost consciousness and died. Despite this event, the wave of anguish, rage, and protests across the country will not stop police brutality or shooting because the problem is deeper than we think.

The issue of racism is based on a legacy of white supremacist ideology, thus promoting racism in policing and widespread discrimination and segregation of minority groups ( Ridgeway, 2016 ). Therefore, it is difficult for the country to heal from all these atrocities because people are not yet ready to accept each other for who they are. Almost every day, stories emerge about police being called over by White individuals because apparently, some black American individuals are just going about their normal routines, being black. Their crime is that they are black, and that's all it takes for police officers to unlawfully harass or even shoot an innocent black guy.

Many people saw the case of the three-black people in California who were confronted by several police cars as they checked out of their Airbnb because a white American thought they were robbing the house ( Fryer Jr, 2019 ). Even though they were not American, they were subjected to American stereotypes and confronted with tense, life-threatening altercations. In 2018, a black lawyer and her 19-year old daughter were handcuffed and detained by the police after being falsely accused of shoplifting ( Fagan & Campbell, 2020 ). America's racist status quo is unique and oppressive, with a monolithic and complexion-based structure.

It is important to understand that racial discrimination in the country has nothing to do with nationality or immigration. It is just a matter of domestic alienation, criminalization, dehumanization, and infliction of terror. The number of killings by police in different states tells it all. The system of racism can be compared to that of the past, where the government supported slavery and slavery codes ( Moore, 2005 ). It is sad to note that the abolition of these codes has not changed anything because people are still dying at the hands of those who are supposed to protect them. The government has turned its back against minority groups, as seen from the way it reacts following racist incidences. The policing system has deprived black Americans of the rights they fought for and won during the civil war.

According to Muhammad (2019) , black life is always criminalized and dehumanized in the U.S. Barrack Obama's presidency seemed to have brought hope as many African Americans felt progress could be attained as far as equality is concerned. On its part, social media has raised awareness of these injustices and police shootings by helping to create the black lives matter movement. The situation, however, seemed to have shifted after President Trump took power. The same type of violence that was experienced in the past seems to have sprouted back, and the number of innocent African Americans being killed by police is still rising.

The race, risk, and threat account for the stereotypic framework used to analyze officer-involved shootings ( Ridgeway, 2016 ). If the police use lethal force as a response to an imminent threat, then the factors mentioned above are key in supporting why an officer drew their weapon on a suspect. These can be used to model particular instances or formulate a wider pattern of racial killings occurring in the U.S. The implication here is that if the threat is racialized, then there is a high likelihood that there is excessive use of force on the suspects. One basic explanation is that implicit racial bias may distort racial anxiety, thus making an officer succumbs to make a split-second decision to either shoot or spare an individual. In addition to this, the neighborhood social context also contributes to the danger that an officer perceives, thus generating reason to use deadly force ( Johnson et al., 2019 ).

It is important to understand that visual cues in a neighborhood create differences in perceptions of crime and danger levels ( Fryer Jr, 2019 ). A majority of police academies do not train rookies on how to act in risky environments. These social contexts are critical because an officer creates a symbolic assailant based on what they see. A black male in an inner-city neighborhood in such a place can be translated to a male suspect, looking suspicious and possibly attempting to rob or steal from other civilians. The presence of such stereotypes stigmatizes neighborhoods and reinforces police patrols in the area even though the likelihood of an imminent threat may not be high. The concentration of a minority group in a section of the city leads to greater disorder, which is brought about by the police's use of brutal force, thus leading to a surge in police arrests.

Black populations live in stigmatized populations where social and political conflicts exist. The elevated rate of police contact with individuals from these streets narrows an officer’s knowledge and vision of the race, pushing them to make discriminatory decisions during patrols ( Shjarback & Nix, 2020 ). During training, ignoring racism and how to deal with cases seems to be the problem with the current system. Tactical assignments are not well analyzed, and as such, police tend to act on crime-danger-risk-metrics whenever they visit minority neighborhoods. The perception that these places are dangerous and generates tension between the police and the community leads to an increase in police-involved shootings over misdemeanor crimes.

Historically, trained law enforcement officers were given the power to use force to stop a felon from resisting or escaping arrest. Fourteen of the US states had implemented a rule whereby a police officer could use force on offenders that threatened to use deadly force on others; this opened a doorway for police brutality, and more cases of innocent deaths were reported ( Smith, 2020 ). In one case, some police officers responded to a call about a break-in in Memphis. The police officers arrived at the scene, and one of them opted to check the rear door of the house to stop the burglar from escaping. He observed Edward Garner, the suspect, trying to climb over the fence; having noticed that the suspect was unarmed, he ordered him to surrender himself. Garner, however, disobeyed and attempted to climb over. Seeing that Garner would make a successful escape, the officer fired his ammunition at him, killing him on the spot. Investigations later revealed that Garner had only stolen a purse and ten dollars; this angered the suspect’s father. He filed a lawsuit against the Memphis Police Department and the Mayor. Garner’s case and other police shootings have led to the rise of human rights protection groups and movements like the Black Lives Matter activist group to observe and report police power abuse ( Johnson et al., 2019 ).

Officer-involved shootings have reduced citizens’ trust in police officers and have created enmity between police officers and some communities ( Smith, 2020 ). Citizens have lost faith in the officers that are supposed to protect them; for instance, the recent Gorge Floyd case stirred up mixed reactions among citizens, some pointing out that the use of police force is causing more damage than good to the society and some arguing that the police have every right to use deadly force on criminals. To understand the reasons for the increased use of deadly force, this research describes officer-involved shootings' predictors at different levels: the individual, community, and organizational levels ( Worden, 2015 ).

Officer-involved shootings at the individual level may be influenced by several factors, including the officer’s age, years of working, ethnic background, and education level. It has been observed that highly educated police officers use less force and are more friendly and professional during their interactions with members of society than less educated officers. Well trained officers are also more likely to use alternative methods of interrogating or arresting criminal offenders, which are non- violent, compared to those with less training. Older officers are known to be more patient with offenders compared to young officers. Different ethnic groups have different sets of beliefs and values, and this determines how they handle criminals. Officers with more years of working employ less violence and often resolve to use alternative methods of enforcing the law

The situational predictors of police violence include the offender's attitude, mental status, and demeanor ( Muhammad, 2019 ). The attitude and demeanor of the suspects determine the level of force a police officer will use. Mentally unstable offenders are perceived as a threat to both the police and civilians; the actions taken to prevent such criminals from causing substantial harm may lead to their shooting. For instance, when a mentally ill criminal holds innocent hostages during a bank robbery, the police officers may be forced to kill the suspect to protect the endangered lives of the hostages. Studies have shown that once a criminal incident has occurred, there is a high likelihood of a second incident occurring at the same scene; having an understanding of this knowledge, police officers are more likely to initiate contact, leading to the suspect's shooting ( Sgambato, 2016 ). Law enforcement policies require suspects to cooperate with the police to solve criminal cases; however, ‘snitching’ campaigns cause criminal offenders to shy away from giving the police crucial information. Moreover, due to lack of trust, some of these criminal offenders resolve to fights whenever law enforcement officers interrogate them, and this violence may sometimes result in shootings ( Muhammad, 2019 ). More often than not, armed criminals pose deadly threats to innocent civilians whenever officers pursue them; this results in the officers responding violently, leading to police-involved killings.

Most cases of police violence to citizens have been reported at the community level. The main predictors are the environment and the culture and beliefs of the community ( Sgambato, 2016 ). Patrol officers assigned to particularly violent districts are sometimes forced to used extreme force during confrontations because they view embers of that community as potential threats. These officers are, therefore, likely to treat citizens in such districts harshly than other citizens. For instance, studies have suggested that most officers view minority communities as centers of violent crimes and treat offenders from these communities with extreme violence. Police-driven homicide cases are frequently higher in these communities, which is why the increased activist groups such as Black Lives Matter ( Shjarback & Nix, 2020 ).

Organizational policies have a significant role in the behavior of police officers. Most police officers work under less supervision from their supervisors; however, informal and formal administration policies influence their behavior when dealing with lawbreakers. Previous research has indicated that most police departments have failed in giving their officers guidance on the use of force when enforcing the law ( Sgambato, 2016 ). Organizational policies can be divided into three distinct policies in relation to professionalism and bureaucracy; watchman, legalistic, and service style. Officers who employ the watchman policy are more likely to use aggressive methods and violence once they perceive the felon's disrespect.

Conclusion 

Over the recent past, officer shootings have become the forefront of news headlines and have become a divisive issue in the U.S. The occurrence of these incidences has greatly disrupted communities and created public distrust in the justice system. To minimize the risk of police shootings, a better understanding of the factors that elevate these cases needs to be analyzed. However, there is very little data to explain whether racial disparities in the number of victims involved in shootings are linked to racism in police departments. There are situational factors that must be considered when assessing this issue based on how they affect officer-civilian interactions.

The decisions that officers make are founded o the principle of reasonableness and whether their judgement about a risk is a true record of what they have encountered. An officer who shoots an unarmed suspect because they believe the former is armed makes an error. If the suspect, on the other hand, acts with the intention to harm, then the officer has done the right thing by shooting them. In a majority of such cases, witnesses claim officers misinterpreted the actions of an innocent civilian or one with a mental health condition as life-threatening. They will shoot the person even though their actions are consistent with their mental health crisis. Consequently, it has been observed that police officers make these errors when people of color are involved. These errors, either classified as skill-based, knowledge-based, or rule-based, can be viewed as situational factors that reflect an officer's cognitive processes. These mistakes are more prevalent when law enforcement officers encounter African American individuals because the latter have misdirected their focus of attention and based their judgment on existing stereotypes about this population.

One evolving theme in this discussion is that of racial discrimination. American society has been built on a framework that thrives on racism. Even though people pretend to hold an equal view to their ethnic neighbors, deep down, they despise and consider them as inferior. Police are no different from these individuals. Racism in the country mostly affects the black community. A majority of the cases involving police brutality and violent shootings involve victims from this community, a majority of who were unarmed and had committed no crime at the time of the incident.

Researchers discredit this fact that there is no relationship between officer-involved shootings and racism, but the truth is that it has everything to do with a person's ethnic background. Black people are always considered to be involved in crime and drugs. The white community will therefore view them as dangerous or a bad influence in society. On their part, police will try to get rid of the 'rot' in society as a means of cleaning up the streets. They will not hesitate to draw their weapon and point it at an African American, be it a lady, child, or man, simply because they are black. People may not want to admit this, but officer-involved shootings are racist acts. Interventions and programs to teach and train officers on how to deal with such situations have not shown any progress as far as the issue is concerned.

Attempts have been made and policies enacted to ensure officers change their behavior in extremely high-state environments so that they do not use excessive force when apprehending suspects. Any action that goes against this policy should be treated with seriousness because things can only take a turn if racial inequality is addressed in police departments. The police should practice using lower levels of force on African Americans because being black is not a crime. # Black lives matter.

References

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Muhammad, K. G. (2019).  The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America, With a New Preface . Harvard University Press. 

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Smith, W. (2020). African Americans, Police Brutality and Racism: A Long Tale of Injustice in the System, and the Way Out. Independently Published. 

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