Poverty relates to the state of deprivation or the lack of financial resources and preconditions to enjoy a socially acceptable minimum living standard and well-being (Bitler, Heynes & Kuka, 2017). The most common poverty measure in the United States is the poverty threshold which was established by the United States government; this measure identifies poverty as the lack or scarcity of services and goods that are deemed necessary by the society. The consumer price index is often used to adjust the inflation’s official threshold. The thresholds are usually updated annually in line with the adjustments in consumer prices. Absolute poverty relates to the complete lack of the means considered essential in obtaining basic needs such as shelter, clothing, and food by an individual. The threshold that defines absolute poverty is considered to be relatively similar regardless of an individual’s era or permanent location. Relative poverty, on the other hand, occurs in instances where an individual who resides in a particular nation fails to attain the stipulated minimum living standards (Bavier, 2014). Therefore, the threshold that defines relative poverty varies among countries or societies. The access to basic needs may be restricted by restraints such as Ethnicity, Sexism, Social Stratification and Age stratification. The paper will critically analyze these factors in relation to poverty in the U.S.
Scope
In 2016, the official poverty rate was at approximately 12.7 percent; this marks a 0.8 significant decrease from the recorded 13.5 percent in the year 2015. The U.S has experienced a significant decrease in poverty rates since the year 2014 (14.8 percent) by approximately 2.1 percent. In 2013, the official poverty rate in America was 14.5 percent compared to fifteen percent in 2012; this marked the first significant decrease in poverty rates since 2006 (Hall & Howell, 2012). In 2013, approximately forty-five million individuals were below the official poverty line. There was a significant increase in poverty rates over the previous decade partly due to the two economic recessions. During the 1990s, there was a significant decline in poverty partly due to the strong U.S economy during this period. There was a marked increase in poverty since the year 2000 to the year 2004; this trend was ascribed to the prevailing economic recession during that period. These trends failed to recede appreciably before the inception of the December 2007 recession. The December 2007 recession ended officially in June 2009, and it was the longest recorded economic recession in the U.S. During the 2007-2009 recession, the rate of unemployment increased from approximately 4.9 percent in January 2008 to approximately 7.2 percent in December 2008. There was also a significant rise in the rates of unemployment during the year 2009 with a 10.0 percent peak during October 2009. In 2010, the rate of poverty among non-aged adults was approximated at 13.8 percent; this is the highest recorded poverty rate since the 1960s (Provencher & Carlton, 2018).
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According to Nasir & Mridha (2017), during the year 2013, the rate of poverty among the non-aged was approximated at 13.6 percent. In 2013, there was a significant decrease in the number of poor children by approximately 1.3 million (14.1 million in the year 2013 from 15.4 million in the year 2012). The poverty rate among children fell from approximately 21.3 percent in 2012 to approximately 19.5 percent in 2013. There was a statistically insignificant change in the rate of poverty among the aged (9.5) in the year 2013. However, the number of the poor (aged) increased by approximately 305,000 (from approximately 3.9 million in the year 2012 to approximately 4.2 million in the year 2013). In 1959, approximately 35.2 percent of individuals aged sixty-five and over were poor; this rate is significantly above that of children (26.9 percent). There was a significant decline in the rate of poverty among the non-elderly amid the year 1959 and 1969. The group later experienced an increase in the rates of poverty from 10.7 percent in 1970 to 12.7 percent in the year 1980.
Ethnicity
Ethnicity relates to the shared distinctions, perspectives, and cultural practices that distinguish a group of people from another; it is a shared cultural heritage. The common features used to distinguish various ethnic groupings include religion, history, language, and ancestry. The rates of poverty vary among different ethnic groups. In 2016, the rates of poverty amid the non-Hispanic whites was approximately 8.8 percent with 17.3 million people in poverty. There was no statistical difference in the rate of poverty and the number of poverty amid the year 2015 and 2016. The Whites accounted for approximately sixty-one percent of the aggregate population and forty-two percent of the individuals in poverty. The poverty rates among the Black Americans declined from 24.1% in the year 2015 to approximately 22.0 percent in the year 2016. The number of Black Americans in poverty declined from approximately 10 million in 2015 to approximately 9.2 million in 2016 (Hall &Howell, 2012). Further, Hall &Howell (2012) notes that in 2016, the number of people in poverty and the poverty rates among the Asians was recorded at 1.9 million and 10.1 percent. The rate of poverty amid the Hispanics decreased from 21.4% in the year 2015 to 19.4% in the year 2016. The number of Hispanic individuals in poverty decreased from 12.1 million to 11.1 million in 2015 and 2016 respectively. In the U.S, ethnic minorities such as Hispanics experience poverty due to literacy and language barriers, prejudice, and racism within the society which in turn, impacts their employment opportunities, income levels and the basis of their education.
Sexism
Sexism relates to an ideology that supports the notion that one gender is more superior to the other. Gender discrimination is the expression of sexism through aspects such as discrimination based on people's gender or sex. In the society, sexism is usually applied to girls and women. Sexism functions to enhance male domination or patriarchy through various ideological practices by institutions, collectives, and individuals that aim at oppressing girls and women by gender. Gaps in hiring, education, promotions, and earnings are the most common forms of gender discrimination which subsequently enhance an increased level of poverty among women within the society as opposed to women. In 2016, approximately 11.3 % of males were in poverty; this was significantly lower than the percentage of women in poverty (14.0 percent). Disparities in poverty along gender are pronounced among individuals aged 18 to 64. The rate of poverty among women was 13.4 percent; this was significantly higher than that of men (9.7 percent) by 3.7 percent (Bitler, Heynes, & Kuka, 2017). The rate of poverty among female householders in 2016 was 26.6 percent; this was significantly higher than the poverty rate of male householders (13.1 percent) by 13.5 percent.
Social Stratification
Social stratification relates to a system through which the society ranks the classes of individuals in a hierarchy. A social hierarchy assumes the design of a pyramid with each stratum exhibiting more power than the one below it. The most privileged grouping is usually ranked top and vice versa. Stratification often incorporates the aspect of inequality amid groupings in the distribution or allocation of socio-economic resources, for instance, power, status, income, wealth. Life chances are a primary feature of the evaluation of social stratification and inequality. Life chances relate to an individual’s chance of having a negative or positive outcome through their lifetime in regards to aspects such as housing, employment, income, health, and education (Provencher & Carlton, 2018). Life chances are usually distributed unequally amid groups and individuals since they are impacted by social factors such as ethnicity, gender, and class position. Individuals in high social classes often have more chances in reference to the access to decent housing and quality health care than the individuals in other classes. Life chances are usually dependent upon status, power, income, and health. Individuals who occupy the top-most strata are less likely to lack basic needs, education, and employment opportunities than those in the lowest strata.
Age stratification
Age stratification relates to the hierarchical ranking of individuals into age groupings within the society; this is a sociological conceptualization associated with the studying of the aging populace. Age stratification within a society may have critical implications since it impacts aspects such as social norms, government policies, workforce trends, and family structures. The changes in a population's age structure impact the manner in which resources are distributed along with a significant shift in the expectations of various age strata; this subsequently impacts the rate of poverty in the society. In 2016, the rate of poverty among individuals amid the age of 18 and 64 was 11.6 percent (22.8 million). The poverty rate for individuals aged 65 and above was 9.3 percent (4.6 million). In 2016, 18.0% (13.3 million) of children under the age of eighteen were in poverty; these children represented twenty-three percent of the aggregate populace and thirty-two percent of the individuals in poverty (Hall & Howell, 2012).
Solutions to the Problem
To effectively deal with the issue of poverty in America, the society should focus on promoting early childhood development. Early childhood interventions may play a significant role in the attempt to address poverty in the U.S. The interventions ought to be comprehensive in their focus, they ought to address issues regarding the need for high-quality child care and early childhood schooling, and they should address issues regarding parenting practices and family circumstance. Early childhood development strategies have long-term effects on economic development and the attainment of education. Secondly, the society should support disadvantaged youths who often encounter various barriers in their attempt to succeed. These youths usually struggle with their school work, commit crimes, and are casualties of violent crimes; they also lack adult role models and the adequate behavioral and academic skills to succeed. The society may support the disadvantaged youths through organizing mentorship programs, youth employment programs, and through reforming the remediation system.
Thirdly, the society should focus on job creation and skill development; these are critical elements that will aid in the fight against poverty. In the current global economy, it is extremely difficult for an individual to be economically secure with limited education and skills. Fourthly, the society should improve their work support strategies and safety net approaches. Strong safety net strategies are crucial in the fight against poverty, especially among the elderly people. Programs such as supplemental security incomes, Medicare, and social security should be reinforced to aid in the reduction of poverty among the elderly. Work support programs such as wage-support policies, for instance, the federal minimum wage and unemployment insurance should also be instituted to handle the issue regarding poverty effectively. Fifthly, adequate and equitable funding of schools should also be implemented to ensure that every student gets the access to quality education and equal opportunities. Learning institutions should also embrace effective school practices and recruit a high-quality workforce. Lastly, non-governmental and governmental institutions should attempt to increase awareness regarding the incidence of poverty and its subsequent impacts.
Structural Functionalism
Structural functionalism is a sociological theory which perceives the society as a complex system typified by units that work jointly to foster stability and solidarity (Nasir & Mridha, 2017). According to Nasir & Mridha (2017), the theory argues that our lives are guided or governed by social structures; these are relatively normal patterns of social behavior. The theory denotes that a family’s structure directly determines the family’s likelihood of living in poverty. The theory denotes that single parents and same-sex parents are more likely to bring up their children in poverty. The theory also allows one to compare a family’s structure with the statistics of individuals in poverty.
References
Bavier, R. (2014). Recent Trends in U.S. Income and Expenditure Poverty. Journal of Policy Analysis & Management , 33(3), 700-718.
Bitler, M., Hoynes, H., & Kuka, E. (2017). Child Poverty, the Great Recession, and the Social Safety Net in the United States. Journal of Policy Analysis & Management , 36(2), 358-389.
Hall, J. L., & Howell-Moroney, M. E. (2012). Poverty, Innovation Capacity, and State Economic Development in the Knowledge Economy: Evidence from the U.S. Growth & Change, 43(2), 228-251. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2257.2012.00584.x
Nasir, A. M., & Mridha, H. A. (2017). Does Income Inequality Dampen Growth Effect on Poverty? Evidence from the U.S. County Data. Journal of Developing Areas , 51(4), 167-177.
Provencher, A., & Carlton, A. (2018). The poverty experience of lone mothers and their children. Applied Economics Letters , 25(6), 401-404.
