Prevention and Early Diagnosis of Signs and Symptoms Leading to Myocardial Infarction (MI)

Myocardial infarction and other cardiovascular diseases affect millions of people in the United States. In general, heart diseases are the leading causes of mortality among women in the United States. Myocardial infarction, also known as a heart attack, is defined as the blockage of oxygen-rich blood from flowing to other sections of the heart. The condition can lead to the death of a section of the heart muscle and even result in fatality. There are symptoms associated with the condition, although there are times when a person may suffer from the condition without having the symptoms. Early diagnosis of the signs and symptoms of myocardial infarction can help in its prevention. However, it is important to know that the condition is spontaneous and it only takes a short time to manifest in an individual. The signs and symptoms are alerts that one may develop myocardial infarction in the near future, though some people may live without experiencing heart attack. 

Knowledge about of the signs and symptoms of an impending heart attack can help women to take quick measures and prevent the occurrence of the condition. Most of the signs of myocardial infection are similar in both genders. Mostly, people tend to overlook them thus risking a pronounced effect when the condition occurs. The most common symptom is the discomfort or pain in the center of the chest that goes and comes back ("Heart Attack Symptoms," 2017). Other than chest pains, discomfort in one or both arms, back, and neck could also indicate a possible myocardial infarction. Some people also experience shortness of breath, pains in the jaw, stomachache, and lightheadedness ("Heart Attack Symptoms," 2017). It is important for one to know the symptoms of a possible myocardial infarction as they can easily identify them and seek medical help promptly. 

Prior Related Behavior 

Personal Factors: 

Biological-Gender. Generally, women and women are almost equally affected by myocardial infarction in the United States. According to "The heart attack" 2016, one in three deaths among the women is caused by myocardial infarction. "The heart attack" (2016) also states that the number of women dying from heart attacks has been more in women than men since 1984 (Rosamond et al., 2012). The reason as to why more women are affected and die from myocardial infarction is because they tend to live for a longer time than men. Myocardial infarction is an age-related condition that affects older people than the young thus the higher rates in women than the men (Talbott et al., 2013). Therefore, the condition remains a significant threat to the health and life of the women. 

Psychological . Stressful conditions and depression can contribute to the development of myocardial infection in an individual (Chi & Kloner, 2003). It is important that the women at risk avoid stressful situations and seek help in the cases they are exposed. 

Socio-cultural . Culture may play a significant role in increasing the risk of myocardial infarction in women. Today, there are trends where most people eat out and considerably consume more alcohol than was the case decades ago. Women who do not take care in such cultures are at risk of developing the condition. 

Behavior-Specific Cognitions and Affect 

Perceived Benefits of Action 

The people at risk are helped to understand that the facts about myocardial infection so that they can promptly seek medical help when they suspect such a condition. With the knowledge, the people know the actions to take and thus a reduced number of the people that are affected by the condition and those who die from it. They can use the knowledge to seek medical assistance where the identification of the condition is made and an evidence-based medication initiated (Reichlin et al., 2009). 

Apart from taking action to treat symptoms, the creation of awareness can help the women aged between 30 and 70 to avoid risk factors that may cause the condition (ten Cate, Gamel, & Sol, 2014). Sedentary lifestyles, excessive weight gain, consumption of unhealthy fats and cholesterol, smoking, and drinking are some of the risk factors that can lead to myocardial infarction. 

Perceived Barriers to Action 

Getting people to adopt a new lifestyle is difficult since it requires a change of a behavior that may have been developed since their childhood. Most of the people who are affected by myocardial infarction may not have adequate knowledge on the risk factors and the symptoms of the condition (Oliveira, Avezum, & Roever, 2015). 

Apart from lack of adequate knowledge, poverty is also a factor that may hamper actions that are meant to reduce the incidence of myocardial infarction (Joynt, & Maddox, 2016). Living a healthy lifestyle and eating healthy foods can be sustained by families that have substantial and steady income. The families that lack adequate funds to acquire nutritious and wholesome foods, go for medical checks and seeks treatment promptly may be affected the most. A big number of families, especially the African-Americans, and the people with disabilities are generally poor and may be predisposed to the condition. 

Lack of facilities and personnel to provide services for the people who have experienced the signs and symptoms of myocardial infarction can bar action (Langabeer et al., 2013). Myocardial infarction is a condition that occurs within a short time and requires prompt action. However, some people may not access health facilities that provide services to prevent or treat the condition. They may lack physical accessibility or finances to help them get the services as they would have wished. In the cases where community services are offered, there are a few professionals who can handle patients who are affected effectively (Rosamond et al., 2013). 

Perceived Self-Efficacy 

There are actions that a person can take if they feel the signs and symptoms of a myocardial infarction at home. In the event of a suspected heart attack, an individual should call for medical help immediately ("Warning Signs," 2016). During the time when they are waiting for help, they should result and maintain calmness. Additionally, the family members should also know what to do if a person at risk exhibits signs of myocardial infarction and they are helpless. Some of the actions they can take include calling the family doctor or seeking medical help from the nearest health facility. 

Activity-Related Affect 

The awareness creation programs should make a difference to the people at risk, their primary health providers, and the family members. The knowledge should be motivation for the women aged between 30 and 70 to develop prompt medical seeking behaviors when they feel signs of myocardial infarction. Furthermore, they should also become frequent visitors to health facilities for medical checks. 

Interpersonal Influences 

Family Habits. The family is the primary contact for the persons at risk and their ways of life may help prevent myocardial infarction or contribute to its occurrence. Some of the habits that the family can instill in the women include active lifestyles, good dietary habits and prompt hospital visits for checkups and treatment (Goel, Goel, & Yadav, 2016). 

Social or Peer Pressure . Societal pressure can be positive or negative when it comes to influencing decisions that can help prevent myocardial infarction (Åkesson, Larsson, Discacciati, & Wolk, 2014). Positive pressure may include constantly asking the person at risk to maintain a healthy weight and avoid excessive consumption of high-calorie food. It may also involve preventing alcohol intake, smoking, and the use of other drugs that exposes a person to the conditions. On the other hand, negative pressures may involve influencing a person to take part in activities that may increase the chances myocardial infarction. 

Lack of Role Models. Role models can help some of the people at risk take measures that help them prevent the occurrence of myocardial infarction ("Survivor Stories," n.d). The role models might include the survivors of the condition or those who actively advocate for the awareness about it. 

Lack of Guidance from Primary Care Health Professional . Primary health care can be resourceful in educating the people at risk on what to do whenever they have suspected signs or symptoms (Lichtman, Leifheit-Limson, Watanabe, Allen, Garavalia, Garavalia, … & Curry, 2015). Primary health care providers should take an active role in providing helpful information that can help people at risk prevent the occurrence of myocardial infarction. 

Situational Influences 

Options. There are several options that can be used in prevention and management of myocardial infarction. Some people might opt for regular medications that help prevent blood clots. 

Demand Characteristics. The plan involves providing information for the people at risk through the common communication channels. This can help people at risk to develop the urge of overcoming the potential attack and thus changing their behaviors as desired. 

Aesthetics. The people that are exposed to stressful and depressing situations might feel better when they are taken to serene environments and those where there are artistic works. Change of environment and 

Behavioral Outcome 

Immediate Competing Demands and Preferences 

More pressing health concerns. The implementation of the plan can be greatly affected by more pressing issues in the health sector. Some of the pressing issues include high numbers of hospital errors and infections, the rising number of people with Alzheimer's disease and the ever-increasing numbers of the aging population (Gupta, 2015). These factors require an increased investment and strain the resources that could have been used for the prevention, treatment, and management of myocardial infarction. 

Other Activities Perceived as Priorities 

Other than the pressing health factors, there are other activities in the health field that are perceived to be of priority. Some of the factors include an inadequate number of doctors and professionals as well as lack of caregivers in the family. The numbers of aging people are projected to increase steadily whereas that of the caregivers will not increase that much. This gap may lead to lack adequate caregivers in the family. 

Commitment to Plan of Action 

A person at risk needs to stick to the plan of action for them to effectively prevent the occurrence of myocardial infarction. At times, other needs and requirements might affect one's commitment to the plan and the health care providers need to take pro-active measures to ensure little or no deviation. 

Health promoting Behavior 

Regular Visits to Clinic. Regular hospital visits are important in control, prevention, and management of conditions that develop over time. Through the regular clinic visits, the risk factors can be identified and an early management initiated to prevent the occurrence of myocardial infarction ("Women and Heart Disease," 2017). 

Practicing Behaviors. The people at risk of myocardial infarction need to be taught about the behaviors that they can use to prevent the occurrence of myocardial infection. Such behaviors include living an active life, eating healthy foods, quitting or avoiding smoking and alcoholism and maintaining a healthy weight ("Women and Heart Disease," 2017). 

References 

Åkesson, A., Larsson, S. C., Discacciati, A., & Wolk, A. (2014). Low-risk diet and lifestyle habits in the primary prevention of myocardial infarction in men: a population-based prospective cohort study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 64 (13), 1299-1306. 

Chi, J. S., & Kloner, R. A. (2003). Stress and myocardial infarction. Heart 89 (5): 475–476. 

Goel, A., Goel, D., & Yadav, Y. (2016). A clinical study of risk factors associated with young patients of myocardial infarction. Prevalence, 36 (36), 37-9. 

Gupta, S. (2015). America's 9 biggest health issues. CNN . Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2015/01/02/opinion/gupta-health-challenges-2015/index.html 

Heart Attack Symptoms in Women (2017). American Heart Association . Retrieved from http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/HeartAttack/WarningSignsofaHeartAttack/Heart-Attack-Symptoms-in-Women_UCM_436448_Article.jsp#.WfshfFuCzIV 

Herrett, E., Shah, A. D., Boggon, R., Denaxas, S., Smeeth, L., van Staa, T., ... & Hemingway, H. (2013). Completeness and diagnostic validity of recording acute myocardial infarction events in primary care, hospital care, disease registry, and national mortality records: cohort study. Bmj, 346 , f2350. 

Joynt, K. E., & Maddox, T. M. (2016). Looking beyond the hospital to reduce acute myocardial infarction: progress and potential. JAMA cardiology, 1 (3), 251-253. 

Langabeer, J. R., Henry, T. D., Kereiakes, D. J., DelliFraine, J., Emert, J., Wang, Z., ... & Jollis, J. G. (2013). Growth in percutaneous coronary intervention capacity relative to population and disease prevalence. Journal of the American Heart Association, 2 (6), e000370. 

Lichtman, J. H., Leifheit-Limson, E. C., Watanabe, E., Allen, N. B., Garavalia, B., Garavalia, L. S., ... & Curry, L. A. (2015). Symptom recognition and healthcare experiences of young women with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, 8 (2 suppl 1), S31-S38. 

Oliveira, G. B., Avezum, A., & Roever, L. (2015). Cardiovascular disease burden: evolving knowledge of risk factors in myocardial infarction and stroke through population-based research and perspectives in global prevention. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 2. 

Reichlin, T., Hochholzer, W., Bassetti, S., Steuer, S., Stelzig, C., Hartwiger, S., ... & Noveanu, M. (2009). Early diagnosis of myocardial infarction with sensitive cardiac troponin assays. New England Journal of Medicine, 361 (9), 858-867. 

Rosamond, W. D., Chambless, L. E., Heiss, G., Mosley, T. H., Coresh, J., Whitsel, E., ... & Folsom, A. R. (2012). Twenty-two year trends in incidence of myocardial infarction, CHD mortality, and case-fatality in four US communities, 1987 to 2008. Circulation, CIRCULATIONAHA-111 . Retrieved from http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/125/15/1848 

Survivor Stories (n.d). The National Coalition for Women with Heart Disease . Retrieved from http://www.womenheart.org/?page=SupportStories 

Talbott, E. O., Rager, J. R., Brink, L. L., Benson, S. M., Bilonick, R. A., Wu, W. C., & Han, Y. Y. (2013). Trends in acute myocardial infarction hospitalization rates for US States in the CDC tracking network. PloS one, 8 (5), e64457. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3661496/ 

ten Cate, D., Gamel, C. J., & Sol, B. G. (2014). Awareness, risk perception and behavioural intention in patients with a myocardial infarction. Clinical Nursing Studies, 3 (2), 8. 

The heart attack gender gap (April, 2016). Harvard Medical School. Retrieved from https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/the-heart-attack-gender-gap 

Warning Signs of a Heart Attack (Sept, 2016). American Heart Association. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/HeartAttack/WarningSignsofaHeartAttack/Warning-Signs-of-a-Heart-Attack_UCM_002039_Article.jsp#.WftOOFuCzIV 

Women and Heart Disease Fact Sheet (August 23, 2017). Centers of Disease Control and Prevention . Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fs_women_heart.htm