Introduction
In prisoners of geography, Tim Marshal takes a look at the extent to which geography has shaped the political condition of various states in the world. While geography does not explain all phenomena witnessed in international politics, Marshall contends that its influence is often not sufficiently appreciated in such analysis. Geography influences not only the limits, achievements, and action of states but also their formation. Thus, geography has for much of human history influenced this action and condition though advances in technology, contends Marshall, offer the first major opportunity for man to take advantage of and conquer geography. A persuasive argument is thus made that technologies have the potential to overturn the relationship between man and geography. The force in this argument is hard to refute though as this paper demonstrates, there is a danger of overestimating the reach of technology in this regard.
To demonstrate how geography has shaped human societies and their relations with one another, Marshall proffers a number of examples from across five continents. China, for instance, has doubled on its claim that Tibet is part and parcel of China because it gives it control over territory around the Himalayas. Ceding to claims for independence would render it vulnerable to western powers that have maintained strategic allies in the region. The Himalayas have also been the same reason behind limited contact between China and India and have made trade between the two difficult. The conflict in the South China Sea is another example of geography shaping a nation’s policy. Control of that part of the ocean would allow a country a nearly unfettered control over imports and exports, effectively making it a regional power 1 . Thus the seemingly unimportant islands in the South China Sea have significant security and economic value thus shaping state policy in the region.
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Another example that Marshall proffers is that of the river of Europe and Africa. The former, on the one hand, has navigable rivers that interlock thus historically allowing contact and trade between various European countries. Sub Saharan Africa, on the other hand, has numerous but unnavigable rivers that allow little contact between various African nations and the outside world 2 . This, he notes, has been compounded by dense jungles and at time deserts that severally limit human contact.
Russia is no exception to geographical influence according to Marshall. Its expansive and often plain land coupled with lack of a year-round access to the ocean significantly shapes its outward policy. Russian leaders have historically sought to establish buffer zones, through the invasion of Poland, Siberia, Ukraine and the far east- a project that can be traced back to Peter the great- in a bid to reach an open sea to establish a buffer state. Marshall rightly observes that this project has continued regardless of who or which ideology has governed Russia; whether crony capitalism, communist or czarist.
Marshall also notes that failure to have consideration for geography has also come at a terrible cost for many peoples of the world. Europeans upon embarking on colonialism failed to have adequate regard for cultural geography. The Pashtuns were torn between northwestern Pakistan and southern Afghanistan condemning that state to modern day instability. The artificial boundaries that created Iraq brought together Sunni and Shia Arabs as well as the Kurds, an invention that has caused considerable turmoil in the country. In Africa, the Democratic Republic of Congo which, thanks to European redraw of the African map, brought together over 200 different ethnic groups in a country equal to France, Spain, and Germany combined. In under half a century, over 6 million have died in that country’s civil war 3 .
The United States superpower status, observes Marshall, has been maintained thanks to the security it enjoys as a result of being surrounded by two oceans and maintaining effective control over much of its neighbors. The explanatory power of this observation, however, has its limitations. Marshall leaves us with little understanding about how original immigrants who moved into the United States were able to settle, conquer and defend land that spanned the Mississippi river valley, the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains in the midst of formidable imperial powers. Another example is Korea that despite its historical, cultural and geophysical unity is sharply divided into hostile states that have been at war for several decades. Settlements in east-central Europe also appear to have defied the dictates of geographical logic leading to the tragic 20 th -century history. Why the United States, despite its evident quest for territorial unification and in the face of no geographical hindrance, did not go ahead to annex Canada is minimally explained by this framework. Japan, with its rough terrain and limited industrial resource, went ahead to become a dominant maritime power and used its newly acquired capability to annex huge swaths of South East and East Asia in the inter-war period 4 . Despite these obvious shortfalls in the prison of geography thesis, there can be little denying that geography maintains a sizable influence on the affairs and state of nations.
The prison of geography according to Marshall can be ditched principally through technological advances. He proffers a number of arguments for this reasoning. Technological advances in warfare are one of the ways of overcoming this prison. Use of drones and bombers has replaced reliance on tanks thus reducing the need for buffer states. While buffer states are arguably important for economic purposes, their importance in revisiting military attacks has diminished. Attacks can be launched from thousands of miles away without the need for land proximity. Thus buffer states have diminished in utility except for limited circumstances. Geographical landforms such as mountains and the sea have also waned in military importance. While America could take comfort in being surrounded by two oceans in the 19 th and 20 th century, the possibility of a missile attack from another corner of the world such as North Korea makes such comfort untenable.
The internet has fundamentally transformed modes of human contact. While unnavigable rivers may have prevented cultural contact between Africa and the outside world, the internet today allows for many forms of exchange including that of goods and services. Marshall thinks that the internet has unprecedented potential in overcoming physical barriers. While the government could restrict access to information under the previous technological order, this has become nearly impossible in the modern world: Online sources of information have replaced newspapers.
Air technology has bridged the physical gap between previously inaccessible parts of the world. While it would take days for travel to be accomplished for long days and with attendant geographical perils, modern air technology has made travel seamless and accessible for vast swathes of the population. Thick jungles and mountainous terrain are no longer much of a hindrance to human contact. Closely accompanying the advancement in flight technology has been developments in rail and road technology. Previously impassable terrain now allows trade contact between nation states and cheap rail technology is being used to connect many African nations that previously had no trade contact. The pipeline between the United States and Canada is set to transform oil exploration and sales between the two countries.
Marshall thinks that climate change, a major geographical factor of our time, can be overcome through technology. Newer technologies could help lead to more environmentally friendly means of energy production reducing harmful effects on the environment and a reduction in human conflict occasioned by climatic changes. This could, for instance, give room for greater opportunity exploitation in the artic where great power conflict occasioned partly by climatic changes, hinders cooperation. Thus, technology in Marshall’s estimation could help reduce conflicts between nation states as opposed to exacerbating them.
In tropical Africa, where diseases like malaria are prevalent and occasion many deaths, advances in medical technology promise to significantly transform these conditions and ensure better living. The extent to which technology is capable of overcoming geographical is also limited. The ability of technology to overcome disputes and conflicts between various overlapping cultural geographies is, for instance, limited at least in the short term. Furthermore, Marshall fails to consider that technology, as opposed to reducing tension brought about by geography may through increased contact exacerbate conflict. In other words, geographically imposed apartheid between communities may be desirable for peace prospects.
In addition, the notion of overcoming geography through technology may in itself be deceptive: technological advancement may enable manipulation of geography in the short run but produce disastrous effects in the long run such as climate change further entrapping man as opposed to freeing him.
Conclusion
Geography significantly influences the trajectory and state of a nation. Marshall demonstrates these interlinkages through numerous examples from across five continents. He argues that technology is one of the principal ways of overcoming geographical limitations. The soundness of some of his arguments has been analyzed here. It is argued that while geography remains a potent force in determining conditions and policies of the individual state, it is inadequate in certain instances as an explanatory tool. Moreover, the reach of technology in overcoming geographical barriers is outlined though its limits are also acknowledged.
Bibliography
Marshall, Tim. Prisoners of Geography: Ten Maps That Tell You Everything You Need To Know About Global Politics. London: Elliot & Thompson, 2015.
1 (Marshall 2015) Chapter two
2 (Marshall 2015)
3 (Marshall 2015)
4 (Marshall 2015)
