Numerous scholars believe that prostitution has been practiced since the beginning of time and trace it back to the primitive man. Some historical accounts argue that the primitive man would pay for sexual favors from the women he was interested in, often using food as well as certain objects. However, the earliest documented forms of prostitution entailed sacred prostitution. In sacred prostitution, individuals performed sexual acts for religious purposes with persons other than their spouses. In the 3 rd millennium B.C, the Sumerians of Mesopotamia worshipped Ishtar, the goddess of war and love. Ishtar would be born anew every morning as a maiden but would become a ‘whore’ in the evening. The women who were in Ishtar’s service helped men with “the sacred powers of their bodies” (Fanni, 2014). The men were expected to give money to Ishtar's temples. Thus, irrespective of rank, men would hire the women, and in return, give an offering to the goddess from whose temple the prostitute came. Owing to this practice, Ishtar was recognized as the protector of the prostitutes. Apart from ancient Mesopotamia, evidence shows that prostitution has existed from the earliest societies and throughout the history of all societies. This paper will explore prostitution in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire while explaining how the practice shaped the historical narratives of the two societies.
Prostitution in Ancient Greece
Prostitution formed an indispensable component of ancient Greece culture. The prevalence of prostitution in ancient Greece can be attributed to three factors (Gill, 2017). Firstly, due to the existence slavery, women would be forced into prostitution ( Katz , 1992) . Secondly, it was common practice for Greek men to marry late in their life, mostly in their thirties. This resulted in increased demand for sex as young men searched for sexual experience before marriage. Thirdly, according to Greek law, adultery with a married woman was a severe crime ( Blundell, 1995 ) . Therefore, it was safer for the young men to seek the services of prostitutes rather than sleeping with a married woman. Despite this, adultery was common as depicted in Aristophanes’ work. In the comic playwright’s Women in the Assembly, Praxinoa, one of the characters quips, “They bake cakes, as they’ve always done. They annoy their husbands, as they’ve always done. They hide lovers in the house, as they’ve always done” ( Blundell, 1995 ).
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Prostitution was particularly common in such important cities as Athens. This city was characterized by numerous piers and ports where traders and merchants from various parts would frequent for trade-related activities. Due to the influx of traders, prostitution was an illustrious career and common aspect of the city. Prostitutes would either work independently or in brothels. Thus, the practice formed an integral part of the economy, with brothels employing a significant number of women. For instance, the prostitutes were expected to be registered and even pay taxes. Prostitution was used for entertainment purposes both by men and in some cases women. Indicating the prostitution's place in Ancient Greece, prostitutes were classified in different classes ( Sanger 2013; Kurke, 1997). Prostitutes in some classes were viewed as having actual jobs while others were viewed as unacceptable. The four types of prostitutes were hetairai , middle-class pornai , lower-class pornai , and male prostitutes.
The hetairai formed the highest class of prostitute (Gill, 2017; Whiteley , 2000 ). The hetairai were considered ‘special’ and were viewed as entertainers as opposed to prostitutes. On the one hand, they were elegant and beautiful. On the other hand, they were endowed with artistic talents and intellectual training. Often, these prostitutes offered their services to younger men, specifically those below 30 years. These men were largely unmarried since the Greek societal norms required men to marry at the age of 30 (Gill, 2017). Denoting their importance in the Greek society, hetairai’s would attach themselves to the most distinguished and famous men, in the process forming the ‘powers behind the throne’ (Olivia, n.d.). This would take place across the arts, politics as well as other crucial areas of Greek life. Kurke (1997) argues that a hetaira was a ‘mistress' or ‘courtesan' who was supported solely by one or two men, and in return offered companionship in revels or symposia. The hetaira also serviced the mens’ sexual desires ( Whiteley , 2000) . This description is confirmed by Xenophon’s portrayal of courtesan Theodote in Socrates’ Memorabilia ( Kurke (1997).
The male prostitutes were often young and likely in their teens or tweens. They were of small build and lacked beards and hair on their bodies (Gill, 2017). It is claimed that the male prostitutes enjoyed more privilege compared to their female counterparts. While some were free and sought to employ themselves, most were slaves of war. Just like in the case of the hetairai, male prostitution was recognized as a respectable trade. While the male prostitutes were mostly meant for serving the female clientele, the ancient Greeks were open to homosexuality ( Katz , 1992). Therefore, a majority of the male prostitutes ended up fulfilling the sexual needs of the older men (Gill, 2017). Homosexuality in Greece was not only tolerated, but it was also considered fashionable in some cases. This was particularly the case in the military. Sexual contact among the males occurred mostly in bathhouses and gymnasiums where naked boys and men worked out and exercised together. This is because in ancient Greece athleticism and homosexuality went hand in hand. For instance, it is believed that Alexander the Great had male lovers. The commonality of homosexuality was captured in Aristophanes' Clouds as well as The Birds.
As opposed to the female prostitutes, male prostitutes were allowed to offer their services to both men and women. Male prostitution was practiced in two ways, both of which were degrading in varying levels. The hetairikos had a status similar to that of the female hetairai. These male prostitutes played escort roles and would offer sexual favors to the ‘masters.’ They also were expected to respect the active-passive nature of the relationship particularly in public ( Katz , 1992). On the other hand, the pornoi were considered unwanted and inferior. This is because they were mostly prisoners of war who were forced to sell their bodies for their survival. The level of these prostitutes was lower than that of the lowest stratum in the Hellenic society. Just like the hetairikos, the pornoi were required to take the passive role in the relationship. Failure to do this resulted in prosecution followed by capital punishment. The last group of prostitutes in ancient Greece were referred to as the pornai. Similar to the pornoi , the pornai were considered slaves and hence were ‘buyable’ (Gill, 2017). This is as opposed to the hetairai who enjoyed more freedom. Although their jobs were the same, the pornai were looked down upon and viewed as second rate. They worked on the streets or in brothels and were often considered immoral. One interesting strategy employed by the pornai was the use of unique sandals that imprinted the words "follow me” in the dirt to lure clients.
Prostitution in the Roman Empire
Similar to Ancient Greece, prostitution was a popular source of pleasure and income in the Roman Empire ( Sanger, 2013) . However, its acceptability was dependent on the period. For instance, from 200 B.C.E to 250 C.E, prostitution was socially approved, but at the same, it was morally suspect. Thus, while individuals sought pleasure and companionship in the brothels, they were still wary of the ethical implications of using money in exchange for sexual relations. This conflict did not stop the springing of brothels in various Roman cities. The most notable city in this regard was Pompeii, where brothels were spread from the poor to the elite neighbourhoods. Despite its social acceptability, prostitution was prohibited by the early laws. This was a source of contradiction. Around 40 C.E, the state enacted taxes with the aim of regulating the profession. This development signified the acceptability of prostitution as a legitimate trade by both the citizens and the government. These early laws regulated the financial and social aspects of prostitution and have been used by scholars as the basis for understanding the lives and experiences of the prostitutes. Likewise, the laws had a contradicting social effect on the prostitutes and the pimps. The initial laws socially hindered the prostitutes while the tax enforcement indicated that the community as well as the state was in support of their actions. This shift indicated a change of attitude, in which case the state realized that it could benefit from prostitution.
Three core factors characterized prostitution in the Roman Empire. These were money, sex and the emotional indifference between the parties involved. Roman prostitutes were often brought up in the profession. For instance, children would be bought by entrepreneurs who eventually brought them up as prostitutes ( Sanger, 2013) . The children would thus become better at prostitution with age. The beautiful prostitutes were more expensive and exclusive, and they could choose their eventual customers. The reverse was true for the less beautiful prostitutes. On the other hand, the brothel keepers ensured that the three critical aspects of prostitution were maintained. This was documented by Dio Chrysostom, a Roman philosopher. The philosopher reckons that brothel keepers ensured that prostitutes brought individuals together for intercourse, that they fulfilled peoples' lust without love, and lastly did all this for profits' sake (Weisner, 2014). To achieve this, the brothel owners gave each prostitute a room from where they would service their clients. Usually, the prostitutes would stand outside their rooms to give potential clients the opportunity of evaluating the ‘product' before purchase. This dynamic was captured by Horace, a poet who lived during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 B.C.E to 14 C.E). Describing a prostitute in a brothel and the procurement process, Horace cites, “In Coan silk, she's nearly nude, and can't hide a malformed leg or gnarly foot. You may measure her body with your eye. Or do you prefer to be swindled and separated from your money, before you even see the goods?” ( Weisner , 2014; Larson, 2012). This account confirms the importance the clients placed on inspecting the prostitutes before paying for their services.
Besides writings, information on prostitution in the Roman Empire can be obtained from architectural ruins. For instance, the remnants of the city of Pompeii provide a glimpse into prostitution in the ancient city and the lives of those that engaged in it. The walls of the brothel often comprised of graffiti, written by both the prostitutes and their clients. Notable writings include “I am yours for an As” (Weisner, 2014). Since an As was ancient Roman's lowest currency, the prostitute, in this case, sought to communicate that she was cheap and anyone could have her. This could imply that she probably was not popular or that she wasn't as beautiful. The walls are also endowed with writings that were aimed at rating the prostitutes. These ratings were done publicly and would be used as reference points by potential clients. The graffiti also highlights the status of women in the Roman society since the clients would not refrain from speaking their minds in them. Amongst women, there was a direct correlation between sexual honor and social status. For instance, if a Roman woman was considered unchaste, she immediately would be viewed negatively in the community. Therefore, it was the duty of Roman families to uphold the image of their women. This was primarily done by controlling the women’s sexual behavior. Thus, in families, the men were expected to protect the innocent and pure image of sisters, daughters and wives.
Legally, the majority of the prostitutes in the Roman Empire were slaves. Therefore, these women did not have male relatives that would protect them. Instead, they were owned by pimps who would control their entire lives. This aspect of prostitution in the empire is documented by Titus Maccius Plautus (254 – 184 B.C), a Roman playwright (Sanger, 2013). In Pseudolus , Plautus captures Ballio, a pimp as he addresses his sex workers in a bid to air his expectations of them. In this regard, he tells them, “See to it that today many gifts come to me from your lovers. For unless annual provisions come to me today, tomorrow I’ll prostitute you to the common herd” (Weisner, 2014). Since Pseudolus was a reflection of the Roman society, Ballio’s words confirm the complete authority and control that pimps had over their sex workers. Pimps could tell their sex workers when to engage in prostitution, how much they would charge for their services as well as whom they could offer their services to. Also, owing to their slave status, prostitutes were put in the same category as gladiators and actors and thus looked upon lowly by the society. This is due to the high value that was placed on the sense of sight by Romans. It was believed that the sense of sight was as powerful as a physical touch. Thus, since prostitutes, gladiators and actors were exposed to many people, they were grouped because they were ‘physically touched' regularly.
Due to their low social standing and impure line of work and actions, prostitutes, as well as their pimps, were denied the right to enjoy various privileges that normal citizens would enjoy. For example, the prostitutes could not take part in some religious cults. Likewise, they were not permitted to come into contact with a priestess. These scenarios indicate the negative light with which prostitutes were viewed in the empire. This was supported by the laws of the land. The lex Iulia et papia, which was the first to guide prostitution prohibited both pimps and prostitutes from marrying out of the ex-slaves rank. By instituting this law, the government considerably constrained the prostitutes’ social movement ( Sanger, 2013) . Since they could not marry anyone that was not formally a slave, the prostitutes were significantly prevented from moving up Rome's social ladder. As a result, the general populace did not treat prostitutes like Roman citizens. This is because they were often branded as slaves.
Subsequent developments in Roman law brought about a shift in the way pimps and prostitutes were viewed by the society. One such statute was enacted by Emperor Augustus (Sanger, 2013) . The lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis protected prostitutes from the penalties that the general populace endured owing to involvement in illicit sexual relations. The statute covered such acts as criminal fornication and adultery. Following the ban, pimps and prostitutes were allowed to carry on with their unchaste ways while the common citizens were expected to embrace the older, moral ways. Despite the fact that prostitutes were increasingly looked down upon, particularly morally, the lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis formed the basis of increased acceptance of prostitution as a legal means of making money. This is because Emperor Augustus did not question the legality of prostitution. He also did not ban prostitutes from selling their bodies. Therefore, the new statute was regarded as the emperor’s approval of prostitution. Overall, the laws can be viewed as resulting in two antagonistic effects. On the one hand, it led to increased state approval of prostitution. On the other hand, it resulted in the degradation of sex workers, in which case the citizens condemned prostitutes for offering services that they (citizenry) enjoyed. Ultimately, lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis fuelled the peoples’ dislike for prostitutes. Besides branding prostitutes dishonourable, the populace controlled what these sex workers could do with their lives.
Similar to Ancient Greece, a hierarchy existed amongst prostitutes in the Roman Empire. The meretrix were expensive and the most sought after while the scortum or lupa occupied the lower ranks and charged less for their services. Another distinct and notable class of prostitutes comprised of female dancers who were numerous and highly sought after. These were Syrians, Ionians, Egyptians, Indians as well as Nubians, with the Spaniards being the most famous. For instance, Ionic dances have been documented by Horace in poetry. This hierarchy existed until Emperor Caligula's reign (37 C.E – 41 C.E). Caligula came up with a statute that required all prostitutes to register for not only taxation but also identification. Owing to this tax, a significant portion (up to 75%) of the revenue from prostitution was channelled to the government ( Weisner, 2014) . This made it hard for prostitutes to carry on with their trade. Irrespective of the rank, all prostitutes were expected to pay the state the same amount of money. To ensure that this tax was not evaded, Caligula taxed both the married prostitutes as well as the pimps. As a result, by taxing anyone associated with prostitution, he was able to generate more money for the government. To collect this tax, Caligula engaged the services of the publicani, who were contractors. The publicani did not care whether the taxpayer lived in Rome or not. Later, the task of tax collection was transferred to the Roman Emperors' bodyguards especially for Rome residents. In areas out of Rome, the tax was collected via army troops after which it would be transferred to the emperor. This strategy was adopted owing to the need to safeguard the money and as a way of ensuring that the state gained maximally from prostitution. Despite being the most significant source of manpower, the army used intimidation to ensure that all the tax due to the government was collected throughout the vast empire.
Caligula’s efforts resulted in a shift in the Roman society’s attitude towards prostitution as well as the prostitutes. While the trade was still popular before Caligula’s reign, the society looked down upon sex workers. Enactment of the tax significantly changed this. By taxing prostitution, Emperor Caligula approved to and legitimized the practice. This way, Caligula's position was more definite compared to that of Augustus ( Weisner, 2014; Sanger, 2013) . This is because by taxing it, the former categorized prostitution as a legitimate business pursuit. Moreover, Caligula was the first Roman emperor to reference sex in Roman laws, particularly those related to tax. The sex tax fell under the category of income tax and was similar to that which was imposed on the majority of the professions in Rome. Tax on prostitution was amongst the most effective taxes in Rome. After Caligula’s exit, Emperor Claudius (41 C.E – 54 C.E) abolished taxes on other businesses since he reckoned that the government had generated enough money. Interestingly, Emperor Claudius did not abolish tax on prostitution because he felt that it was too profitable. The emperors that came after Claudius also shared this position. For instance, Emperor Severus Alexander (222 C.E – 235 C.E) used money gathered from the tax to construct buildings in Rome. This stance was adopted by even Christian emperors that ruled Rome implying that the emergence and growth of Rome can be directly linked to prostitution. The practice also significantly influenced advancements in the Roman law.
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