Week 4
Terrorism is multifaceted and results from a combination of factors including but not limited to social risks, psychological risk factors, political, economic, as well as environmental risk factors. According to Litman et al. (2017), terrorism is and remains to be one of the most pressing issues affecting nearly all countries globally. For example, in 2014, the cost of terrorism globally was estimated at US$111.9 billion, US$89.6 billion in 2016 (Statista, 2020). Preventing terrorist attacks requires countries to stem out of the causes and mitigate them effectively. One way of doing this understands the psychological and social risk factors for terrorism. Lone- actor terrorists, for example, possess certain characteristics that enable them to commit acts of terrorism. Some of these psycho-social risk factors for lone-acting terrorists include being single, having behavioral and conduct disorders, being literate, having an enabler or a terrorist friend, being male, being socially isolated, having schizophrenia or delusion disorder, having personal or political grievances, family or individual criminal record, being from a poor background, low social, economic status (SES) as well as having a deep commitment to extremist ideologies, social, religious, economic, political or otherwise (Smith, 2018). For example, individuals of low SES may be motivated by money to perpetrate terrorism acts (seen in radicalized youth in Al-Shabab and ISIS). White supremacist ideologies, as well as religious ideologies, are responsible for black people's assassinations and mass killing of people from other religions. Most lone attackers have been found to be loners, antisocial, having one or more psychological or behavioral problems, e.g., David Berkowitz and Jeffery Dahmer.
However, terrorism is still a useful analytical term and should be retained. This is because ideologically and politically motivated violence remains to be a problem in the current world. The framework of 'terrorism' provides people, policymakers, and academic researchers with a way of defining and conceptualizing the acts. As discussed above, poverty and exclusion are two overarching risk factors for terrorism. An example is Aileen Carol "Lee" Wuornos, a female serial killer that had serious psychological problems, faced abandonment at a young age, and was from a very poor background (Diamond, 2019).
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Week 5
Abuser behavior is complex and characterized by actions such as possession of weapons, constant threats to use these weapons, criticism for little things, extensive anger, and aggressive tendencies, has a hot temper that is sometimes uncontrollable, humiliates persons in front of others, has control issues, is vengeful, destroys property during their violent outbursts, forces coitus, plays the blame game efficiently, hits/slaps, punches, kicks, bites, burns and inflicts other forms of physical injuries, is cruel to animals and children, is an alcohol and drug abuser, has a fascination for weapons, has a history of violence, has unrealistic expectations which if unmet, result in physical or mental abuse, has a history of battering, is intentionally cruel among many others (Holt, 2016).
The 'mandatory arrest' policies for domestic violence are among the most crucial policies to control domestic violence and prevent recidivism by the abusers or continued perpetration of such violence. One notable characteristic of abuser behavior is a tendency to revenge. If the perpetrator is not arrested upon first reporting, he/she will seek retaliatory actions. Walker's (1979) cycle of abuse is 4-phased and is used to explain the behavioral patterns in an abusive relationship; these are [1] tension build up; [2] incident; [3] Reconciliation; [4] Calm followed by a repeat. Children in homes with one parent if the guardian has abusive behavior tend to develop psycho-social problems, develop hate for the gender, may engage in such behavior in their adulthood, as well as perform poorly in school. Women stay in abusive relationships because they fear retaliatory action and because they lack the finances to support themselves or their children post-separation. They may also stay due to commitment to their marriage vows, for better or for worse (Dare et al., 2013).
Week 6
There are several motivations that ignite sexual predatory behavior. These include sex gratification, the need to exert control and power over the victim, as a means to relieve stress and anger, incitation by peers (peer group influence). Unconscious motivation due to top neurotic character disorder may also come into play here. While most sex predators only ever think about it but do not act, drugs and alcohol use play a significant role in jumping the ledge. Some gain the courage to carry out sexual offenses when under the influence. Horvath and Brown (2006), in a study, found a strong linkage between drug and alcohol use and rape. Consumption of excess alcohol during a date with acquaintances is most likely to result in a rape incidence. This is direct as a result of dulled senses and poor judgment.
Bierie (2016) agrees that registering sex offenders play a significant role in reducing sex offenses. I am of a similar opinion, which is why I believe that such extreme measures should be taken to discourage individuals or convicted from offending or re-offending, respectively.
Week 7
Some chief reasons why cybercriminals perpetrate cyberattacks include; disgruntlement, revenge, need for publicity, seeking power (Espionage), and for financial gain above all (Chawki et al., 2015). Now, the motivation and manner in which the cybercriminal attacks the cyber systems are what justifies the act. If the individual is motivated by money, need for power, or self-gains, and if there is malicious intent, then the cybercrime is not justified. However, if the cyberattack is made to benefit the underprivileged, the oppressed, and those facing challenges, then it may be justifiable. The sad part is despite being ethically and morally right, cybercrime is legally wrong. Organizations and governments should install the latest software to counter cyberattacks. These include intrusion detection systems, anti-viruses, firewalls, etc. additionally, employee training on accepted internet and email use will help control cyber-attacks. Internet anonymity is one of the reasons why cybercrime has thrived. Classic examples include cyberbullying and mob justice as detrimental effects of anonymity on the internet. On online or internet anonymity, a cybercriminal can hide his/her identity on various online platforms. Web anonymizers use proxy servers to act as "go-betweens" for Internet communications (Kirillova et al., 2017). This, therefore, enables the criminals to hide the identifying information of the device where the communication originates. This facilitates cybercrime such as money laundering, fraud, child pornography, and the distribution of objectionable material, terrorism, hacking, drug dealing.
Week 8
Juvenile delinquency is a leading global concern and has serious consequences on the individual, the victims, the society, and the country. In the United States, approximately 2.1 million juveniles under the age of 18 were arrested for various forms of juvenile truancy in just a single year. In 2018, the number of juvenile arrests was 728,280 (60% more than it was 10 years ago). Extensive research has shown that infants as young as 3-6 months understand the difference between right and wrong (Dahl and Killen, 2018; Wallace, 2014). However, at the age of two years, the child is able to understand the consequences of wrong and the inherent seriousness of their action. The youngest juvenile arrest was of a 4-year old boy who threatened to kill his playmate with a butcher knife. This is consistent with Kohlberg's (1985) Stages of Moral Development. Huessman (2007), in a scientific study, concluded that exposure to media violence has detrimental negative effects on a child both in the short term and in the long term. This is because children mostly lack the capacity to understand that what is filmed is a work of fiction and moreover does not have the ability to understand the seriousness of their actions. Huesmann (2007) suggested that the short-term effects were due to priming processes, arousal processes, and the immediate mimicking of specific behaviors.
References
Bierie, D. M. (2016). The utility of sex offender registration: a research note. Journal of sexual aggression , 22 (2), 263-273.
Chawki, M., Darwish, A., Khan, M. A., & Tyagi, S. (2015). Cybercrime: introduction, motivation and methods. In Cybercrime, Digital Forensics and Jurisdiction (pp. 3-23). Springer, Cham.
Dare, B., Guadagno, R., & Nicole Muscanell, M. A. (2013). Commitment: The key to women staying in abusive relationships. J. Interpers. Relations, Intergr. Relations Identity , 6 , 58-64.
Diamond, S. (2019). “A Flower in a Hard Rain”: Melodramatic Storytelling by, and About, Aileen Wuornos. Anthurium , 15 (2).
Holt, A. (2016). Adolescent-to-Parent Abuse as a Form of “Domestic Violence” A Conceptual Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 17 (5), 490-499.
Horvath, M. A., & Brown, J. (2006). The role of drugs and alcohol in rape. Medicine, science and the law , 46 (3), 219-228.
Huesmann, L. R. (2007). The impact of electronic media violence: Scientific theory and research. Journal of Adolescent health , 41 (6), S6-S13.
Kirillova, E. A., Kurbanov, R. A., Svechnikova, N. V., Zul'fugarzade, T. E. D., & Zenin, S. S. (2017). Problems of fighting crimes on the Internet. Journal of advanced research in law and economics , 8 (3 (25)), 849-856.
Kohlberg, L. (1985). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. WC Crain, Theories of development , 118-136.
Litmanovitz, Y., Weisburd, D., Hasisi, B., &Wolfowicz, M. (2017). What are the social, economic, psychological and environmental risk factors that lead to radicalization and recruitment to terrorism. Campbell Systematic Reviews , 13 , 1-22.
Smith, A. G. (2018). Risk factors and indicators associated with radicalization to terrorism in the United States: What research sponsored by the National Institute of Justice tells us (pp. 1-28). US Department Of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.
Statista.(2020). Global economic costs of terrorism from 2000 to 2018(in billion 2018 U.S. dollars). Retrieved November 12, 2020 from https://www.statista.com/statistics/489649/global-economic-costs-of-terrorism/
Walker, L. E. (1979). The battered woman.
