Race is the distinct categorization of humans in the society based on aspects such as the shared social and physical qualities (Banton, 2018). The sociology of ethnic and race relations is based on the study of economic, political, social, relations amid ethnicities and races at all society levels; this field encompasses the study of aspects such as residential segregation, racism, and other social procedures amid different ethnic and racial groupings (Browne, Reingolf, & Kronberg, 2018). Racism is a belief based on the superiority of a particular race over the other and this, in turn, results in the prejudice and discrimination of people in accordance to their ethnicity or race. The ideologies that underlie racist practices incorporate the perception that human beings can be divided further into distinct groupings based on their innate capacities and social behavior and the conception that humans can be classified as superior or inferior (Browne, Reingold, & Kronberg, 2018). Historical illustrations of institutional racism include segregation in the U.S, apartheid reign in South Africa, slavery in America (Latin), and the Holocaust. Racism was also a common social organization among numerous colonial empires and states. In the contemporary society, racist ideologies are being manifested in numerous ways, for instance, through political systems, and social practices such as supremacism, nativism, and hierarchical ranking which support the expression of discrimination or prejudice.
How a Sociologist can investigate the Claim
Statistical Analyses
Perhaps the most popular approach to analyzing the concept of discrimination is by assessing the outcomes of inequality amid groups. The approach aims at assessing the probable consequences or effects of discrimination in aspects such as the unequal distribution of housing, employment, or other economic and social resources as opposed to focusing on the perceptions or attitudes of actors who may be interconnected with various acts of discrimination (Bowser, 2017). Researchers may use large-scale datasets to determine the existing systematic disparities amid groupings and predict their orientations over time. Significant patterns can also be identified through the use of systematic and detailed case studies on organizations that provide a wide range of indicators to facilitate the assessment of discrimination patterns. In statistical models, racial discrimination is usually assessed as a residual gap in a particular outcome after controlling the gap that exists amid other race-related effects. Differences may be detected through the primary impacts of the race which indicate the direct impact of race on a particular outcome of interest or via an interaction amid race and other aspects of human capital, thereby, indicating the differential human capital investment returns with regards to race. The primary liability associated with this approach include the difficulties encountered when accounting for the factors linked to unequal outcomes (Banton, 2018). For example, during the statistical analysis of labor market outcomes, many employment-related features are usually unaccounted for, in spite of the attempts to control standard variables associated with human capital. Features such as punctuality, interpersonal skills, motivation, and reliability are equally crucial in finding and keeping a particular job. However, these features are usually difficult to capture using survey data (Bowser, 2017). Control variables may be endogenous to the procedure of assessing racial discrimination. For instance, models aimed at assessing credit discrimination such as controls for credit history and accumulation of assets may incorporate aspects of discrimination indirectly (Bowser, 2017). Likewise, controls for a company’s tenure or an individual’s work experience can be endogenous to the procedure of assessing employment discrimination in instances where the minorities are excluded the opportunities necessary to establish stable work histories. Even though statistical models serve a significant approach to the analysis of race differentials, sociologists should implement the necessary precautions when making causal interpretations regarding the indirect discrimination measures derived from residual estimates.
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Experimental Approaches to Investigating Discrimination
Experimental approaches used to measure discrimination are usually used in instances where statistical analyses prove to be ineffective. Experiments allow sociologists to evaluate the causal effects of racism directly by providing controlled and constructed comparisons. For example, in a laboratory experiment conducted by Doviio and Gaertner, the research’s subjects participated in a simulated hiring experiment process (Yaldez & Golash, 2017). During the experiment, these subjects were asked to examine the application forms for both white and black job applicants of different levels of qualification. In instances where applicants were categorized as poorly or highly qualified for a particular position, there was no proof of discrimination. However, in the cases where an applicant had satisfactory but ambiguous qualifications, the research participants were seventy percent more likely to recommend the recruitment of a white applicant than the Black applicant. Although laboratory experiments provide some of the most substantial evidence associated with causal relationships, the extent to which the obtained finding relates to the types of decisions made in the respective social contexts remains unknown (Bowser, 2017). Some researchers extend their experiments to the field to bring a significant level of realism to the process of investigation. Field experiments often present a direct discrimination measure in the context of the real world; these experiments are commonly identified as audit studies. During these studies, sociologists usually select, group, and train participants (testers) to assume the role of an apartment or job seeker. By presenting individuals who are equally qualified but differ by ethnicity or race, researchers are usually able to assess the extent to which racial considerations impact the access to opportunities by both groups. Audit studies document strong evidence of discrimination in the various social settings such as insurance applications, home mortgages, car sales, employment opportunities, and medical care provisions (Browne, Reingold, & Kronberg, 2018). Although experimental procedures are useful in the isolation of causal effects, they are often associated with various disadvantages. Critiques of the audit process of assessment question its effectiveness in multiple aspects which include internal validity such as issues regarding tester matching and experimenter effects, generalizability such as the utilization of overqualified testers and the restricted sampling frames for the choice of companies to be evaluated, and the ethics employed during the audit study (Browne, Reingold, & Kronberg, 2018). Additionally, audit methodologies are usually costly and hard to implement, and they can only be utilized for critical decision points such as hiring and limited to activities such as termination, promotion, and training.
Factors that Contribute to the Trend
Implicit Bias
An implicit bias relates to an unconsciously prompted belief in the inferiority of a particular group or a triggered negative attitude towards a specific ethnic grouping. An assumption drawn from the recent cognitive psychology findings and the existing nascent relationship with cultural sociology imply that implicit biases are likely to impact an individual's actions and expectations (Sue, 2017). Unconscious negative perceptions towards a particular racial grouping are often revealed in our everyday interpersonal relations in various social settings such as schools and workplaces. Basing on various psychological experiments and IATs (Implicit Association Tests), the research scores indicate a significant association amid race and different judgments and attributes (Yaldez, & Golash, 2017). The studies reveal that individuals are more likely to associate positive stereotypes and attributes with the White race than with other races, especially blacks. Additionally, these studies project that distinct emotions and behaviors are likely to impact interpersonal interactions. Other studies indicate that minorities may also hold implicit biases against their group in spite of the articulating explicit beliefs in the concept of racial equality. The inherent anti-Black biases among the Black community may be perceived as a feature of internalized racism whereby, the members of a particular subordinated racial grouping acknowledge the negative attitudes and stereotypes towards their grouping.
Peer Pressure and Unfamiliarity
Peer pressure relates to the direct influence of peers on a particular individual (Sue, 2017). A person’s peer often has a big influence on the behaviors and the subsequent actions of an individual. One may be influenced by his peers to make racist decisions or make racist comments. Unfamiliarity may also serve as a common trigger for the prevalence of racism; it is usually hard for an individual to avoid the racism in instances where the individual has been brought up in a surrounding typified by people in his race. These individuals often grow up with a negative stereotype due to the lack of exposure to people of other races. Parents should, therefore, be encouraged to allow their children to interact with individuals from different races to enable them to learn about the different cultures that exist in the world and the different ways of living to prevent the aspect of racism.
Self-esteem and the Desire to Feel Superior
One of the primary contributing factors to discrimination in the U.S is self-esteem. Self-esteem often demonstrates a person’s overall subjective emotional assessment of his value; it determines the decisions made by a particular person as a perspective towards oneself, and it generally involves the belief in oneself (Yaldez & Golash, 2017). Individuals of a particular race often believe that they are superior to other races due to aspects such as economic success and nativity; this is commonly referred to as positive distinctiveness which is dominant in instances where a particular group strives to be better than the other group. Various individuals usually suffer from inferiority complex and to establish their supremacy; they tend to derive pleasure from executing activities that promote racial discrimination.
Contemporary State Practices and Policies
State practice and policy is a form of structural prejudice which is associated with the conventional understanding of a particular agreement regarding a specific policy or practice that systematically disadvantages certain racial groupings (Yaldez, & Golash, 2017). A contemporary paradigmatic case of structural discrimination in the U.S is the enacted immigration policies by President Trump which targets the immigrants in the U.S such as the Mexicans.
Sociological Perspective
In my analysis, I will use the critical theory. Critical theory of sociology is a school of thought which emphasizes the reflective evaluation and critique of a particular culture and society by incorporating the knowledge from various disciplines such as social sciences. Critical theory is usually applied in aspects associated with the inequalities of race, gender, ethnicity, social class, and education (Bowser, 2017). The theory will aid in the evaluation of the many past and current struggles among the racial groups in the United States, for instance, the non-Hispanic Whites, Hispanics, and the non-Hispanic Blacks. Critical theory will aid in addressing the issues that are likely to arise in instances where ethnicity and race are the basis or triggers of social inequality which is the central focus of the project. However, there are complex issues that may be associated with the use of the theory. For instance, Patricia Hill Collins, a feminist psychologist came up with the intersection theory that implicates that it is impossible to separate the impacts associated with aspects such as sexual orientation, gender, class, and race from other attributes (Browne, Reingold, & Kronberg, 2018). In her theory, she claims that it is crucial to acknowledge how race is shaped, for example, by class and gender, when examining race and its disadvantages and advantages. Patricia claimed that many layers of limitations intersect to bring about our racial experiences. For instance, to understand the aspect of prejudice, we ought to understand that the discrimination directed towards a White woman due to her gender is entirely different the layered discrimination directed towards a poor Mexican woman who is being impacted by stereotypes associated with poverty, her sexual orientation, and being a part of the minority community (Browne, Reingold, & Kronberg, 2018).
Conclusion
Race relations is based on the study of economic, political, social, relations amid ethnicities and races at all society levels. The field encompasses the study of aspects such as residential segregation, racism, and other social procedures amid different ethnic and racial groupings. A sociologist can assess the prevalence of discrimination by using various analytic processes which include experimental studies and statistical analyses. Factors likely to contribute to the prevalence of racism in the United States include implicit bias, peer pressure and uncertainty, self-esteem, and the contemporary state practices and policies.
References
Banton, M. (2018). The sociology of ethnic relations. Ethnic & Racial Studies , 31(7), 1267-1285.
Bowser, B. P. (2017). Racism: Origin and Theory . Journal of Black Studies , 48(6), 572-590.
Browne, I., Reingold, B., & Kronberg, A. (2018). Race Relations, Black Elites, and Immigration Politics: Conflict, Commonalities, and Context. Social Forces , 96(4), 1691-1719.
Sue, C. A. (2017). U.S. racial and ethnic relations in the twenty-first century: are old divisions prevailing? Ethnic & Racial Studies , 40(13), 2210-2217.
Valdez, Z., & Golash-Boza, T. (2017). U.S. racial and ethnic relations in the twenty-first century. Ethnic & Racial Studies , 40(13), 2181-2209.
