Hospital acquired infections are the infections that are contracted when a patient is hospitalized. The scientific name of hospital acquired infections is nosocomial infections. For an infection to be considered nosocomial, it must not be present or incubating before the patient is admitted and occurs within 48 hours after admittance (Haque, Sartelli, McKimm, & Bakar, 2018). Hospital acquired infections are mainly found in the intensive care unit (ICU), where healthcare providers handle serious diseases. Nosocomial infections result in significant, mortality, morbidity and hospital expenses. The rising cases of nosocomial infections are as a result of antibiotic resistance and the complexity of medical care.
The risk of contracting hospital acquired infections is increased by compromised immune systems during hospitalization, ward roommates, age, prolonged ICU stay and length of using antibiotics. The predominant types of hospital acquired infections are pneumonia, meningitis, surgical site infections, urinary tract infections and meningitis. They are caused by viruses, fungus and bacteria. They are characterized by nausea, headache, fever, coughing and difficulty urinating. This paper is going to analyze hospital acquired infections by forming and answering two levels of research questions using scientific and mathematical/analytical perspectives of inquiry. Hospital acquired infections affect various body systems and their occurrence is contributed to by socioeconomic factors.
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Scientific Perspectives of Inquiry
Level Research Question: Which Body Systems are affected?
Some of the most common hospital acquired infections are pneumonia, meningitis, gastrointestinal infections, SSI’s, and UTI’s. According to a study that was conducted in the United States, the most common microorganisms that caused the infection were Clostridium difficile and Staphylococcus aureus (Magill, Edwards, & Bamberg, et al. 2014). Urinary tract infections affect the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. However, most of the infections affect the lower urinary tract which consists of the bladder and the urethra. When the UTI is limited to the bladder, the patient only experiences pain but the effects get worse when the kidneys are affected. The body systems that are affected by UTI’s cause varying signs and symptoms. When the kidneys are affected, the patient experiences vomiting, nausea, chills and high fever. Additionally, the patient may experience pain in the upper back and the side. When a patient’s bladder is affected, he may experience discomfort in the lower abdomen, pressure in the pelvic region, frequent and pain while urinating. In some cases, patients can observe blood in their urine. Urinary tract infections that affect the urethra cause discharges and a burning sensation while urinating.
Gastrointestinal infections, meningitis and pneumonia are some of the other infections that can be contracted during hospitalization. Gastrointestinal infections are caused by parasites, bacteria and viruses and they cause an inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract which is made up of the small intestines and the stomach. The infections are characterized by abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhea. Meningitis is defined as an inflammation of the membranes that are around the spinal cord and the brain. Hospitalized patients can contract the diseases due to bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. Meningitis causes swelling of the meninges which is severely painful. The infection is characterized by a stiff neck, headache, fever, seizures, skin rash and confusion among others. According to the American Lung Association (ALA), pneumonia is an infection that causes an inflammation of the lungs air sacs (American Lung Association, 2019). Pneumonia affects the lungs and causes the air sacs to fill up with fluids. Pneumonia is characterized by fever, cough, and shortness of breath, loss of appetite, nausea and confusion.
Level 2 Research Question: Are Respiratory or GI Systems more Commonly affected?
Gastrointestinal and respiratory hospital acquired infections are common in healthcare facilities. However, infections that affect the gastrointestinal system are more common due to the predisposing factors that cause them. Factors such as the availability of waste management material and hand-washing facilities contribute to the gastrointestinal infections that are recorded. Due to the lack of hand-washing facilities, the patient may end up consuming bacteria, viruses or fungi that result in infections. Additionally, the lack of effective waste management material around the hospital premises may cause an outbreak of gastrointestinal infections. Other predisposing factors of gastrointestinal infections are the presence of alcohol-based hand rub material. Due to the presence of the alcohol-based hand rub material, patients may easily consume the chemical that would to contraction of infections. A study conducted showed that the availability of proper waste management systems reduces the rate at which patients and healthcare providers are exposed to waste materials (Yallew, Kumie, & Yehuala, 2017).
Invasive treatment devices contribute to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections. Invasive treatment devises such as catheters save lives but they also act as routes of transmission of microorganisms thus causing infections (Yallew, Kumie, & Yehuala, 2017). Catheters act as routes of transmission of gastrointestinal infections as they are inserted into the body cavity. The catheters may harbor microorganisms thus causing patients to contract infections. A study conducted in Poland showed that exposure to invasive procedures and medical equipment is responsible for some hospital acquired infections (Deptula, Trejnowska, Ozorowski & Hryniewicz, 2015).
Mathematical/Analytical Perspectives of Inquiry
Level 1 Research Question: What are the Statistical Facts Related to the Issues?
Hospital acquired infections are more prevalent than we may think. According to the United Stated Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, approximately 1.7 million individuals are infected hospital acquired infections while 98,000 succumb to them (Haque, Sartelli, McKimm, & Bakar, 2018). HAI are some of the most common medical complications that affect patients in the United States. Additionally, HAI’s affect seven out of a hundred patients hospitalized in advanced countries while ten patients are affected in third world countries (Haque, Sartelli, McKimm, & Bakar, 2018). A study that was conducted in hospitals in the United States showed that 4% of the patients were affected by hospital acquired infections (Haque, Sartelli, McKimm, & Bakar, 2018). Another study conducted by the same team showed that 6% of patients were affected by HAI’s and 76% of them had contracted bloodstream infections, urinary tract infections and pneumonia (Magill, Edwards, & Bamberg, et al. 2014).
HAI’s are common all over the world. In Singapore, a study that was conducted showed that 11.9% of the patients were infected with hospital acquired infections (Haque, Sartelli, McKimm, & Bakar, 2018). Another study that was conducted in Europe shows that over 2.6 million patients contracted HAI’s every year in the European Union (Cassini, Plachouras, and Eckmas, et al. 2016). Additionally, out of twenty patients admitted in hospitals within the European Union and European Economic Area at least one was infected with a HAI (Cassini, Plachouras, and Eckmas, et al. 2016).
Level 2 Research Question: Do Socioeconomic Factors Affect HAI Occurences?
Just like other infections that affect human beings, hospital acquired infections are contributed by the socioeconomic status of patients. A study conducted by the National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit showed that there is a positive correlation between low socioeconomic status and prevalence of gastrointestinal infections (Adams, Rose, Hawker, Violato, O’Brien, Barr, et al. 2018). Individuals of a higher socioeconomic status are less affected by hospitals acquired infections compared those of a lower SES. Patients of a higher socioeconomic status can afford healthcare at modernized hospitals with few predisposing factors of HAI’s. Individuals of a lower socioeconomic status can only afford less developed hospitals. These hospitals are characterized by predisposing factors such as absence of proper waste management and sanitation. Lack of proper sanitation and waste management immensely contribute to contraction of hospital acquired infections.
Conclusion
Hospital acquired infections are common all over the world and affect different body systems. The socioeconomic status of patients immensely contributes to the risk of being infected with HAI’s. HAI’s are commonly found in the intensive care unit where highly infectious diseases are treated. Some of the most prevalent HAI’s are pneumonia, gastrointestinal infections, urinal tract infections and meningitis. All the infections affect different body systems such as the brain, spinal cord, urinary tract, abdomen, and the lungs. The infections display different symptoms depending on the body systems that they affect. The occurrence of these infections is contributed to by predisposing factors such as use of invasive treatment devices and procedures, lack of proper sanitation and waste management and socioeconomic factors. There is a positive correlation between low socioeconomic status and prevalence of hospital acquired infections. People of lower socioeconomic status are affected more by HAI’s compared to those of a higher SES. HAI’s are some of the most common complications that are experienced by healthcare providers and patients.
References
Adams, N., Rose, T., Hawker, J., Violato, M., O’Brien, S., Whitehead, M., Barr, B., & Taylor-Robinson, D. (2018). Socioeconomic Status and Infectious Intestinal Disease in the Community: a Longitudinal Study (IID2 Study). European Journal of Public Health, 28(1): 134-138.
American Lung Association, (2019). Lung Health and Diseases. Retrieved from: https://www.lung.org/lung-health-and-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/pneumonia/symptoms-and-diagnosis.html
Cassini, A., Plachouras, D., Eckmanns, T., et al. (2016). Burden of Six Healthcare-Associated Infections on European Population Health : Estimating Incidence-Based Disability-Adjusted Life Years through a Population Prevalence-Based Modeling Study. PLoS Med, 13:10.
Deptula, A., Trejnowska, E., Ozorowski, T., Hryniewicz, W. (2015). Risk Factors for Healthcare-Associated Infections in Light of Two Years of Experience with the ECDC Point Prevalence Survey of Healthcare-Associated Infection and Antimicrobial use in Poland. J Hosp Infect, 90: 310-315
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Magill, S.S., Hellinger, W., Cohen, et al. (2012). Prevalence of Healthcare-Associated Infections in Acute Care Hospitals in Jacksonville, Florida. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 3(3):283-291
Mayo Clinic, (2019). Urinary Tract Infection. Retrieved from: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/urinary-tract-infection/symptoms-causes/syc-20353447
Yallew, W.W., Kumie, A., & Yehuala, (2017). Risk Factors for Hospital-Acquired Infections in Teaching Hospitals of Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia: A Matched-Case C0ntrol Study. Public Library of Science, 12(7). Doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181145
