Scientific Methods and Geology

Section 1: Scientific Method 

Part 1 

The scientific process or method involves six main steps: making an observation, conducting a research, hypothesis, testing or performing an experiment, analyzing data, and iterating or concluding depending on the results ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . Making an observation involves asking a question to determine the purpose of the study. Research entails performing a background study of the phenomenon the researcher seeks to understand. The third step, proposing a hypothesis, accounts for making informed guesses concerning the outcomes expected by the research. The fourth process caters for designing and conducting an experiment to confirm the hypothesis. Data analysis, the fifth process, entail recording the emerging observations as well as analyzing the inferences from the data ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . As the final step, the conclusion concerns the decision to either accept or reject the hypothesis based on the data inferences occurring in the fifth step of the scientific method. 

In scientific procedures, a hypothesis describes an assumption established before performing any research ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . Theory, on the other hand, refers to the principle or reasoning created to elucidate phenomena that have been confirmed by data ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . 

Empirical evidence or data denotes information obtained via experimentation or observation ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . An example of empirical data regarding Earth is that it is situated about 149.6 million kilometers from the Sun. 

Defining the range of sunrise over the year on the horizon would require measurement of the latitude for each sunrise as well the time of the year. 

Although there is the climate myth that the planet has not warmed since 1998, the long-term trends and record-breaking accounts indicate that 200, 2010, 2014, and 2015 had hotter temperatures than 1998. 

A data collection method that has an end is the quantitative approach. Quantitative data defines the data that concern numbers, values, and quantifiable information, making them precise and measurable ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . As a result, they are often presented in numerical form, including duration, price, amount, size, length, and size. A data collection technique has is continuous is the qualitative approach, which often deals with the quality aspect of information. The qualitative approach is always descriptive instead of assuming the numerical nature of the quantitative technique ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . Compared with quantitative method of data collection, qualitative method are not measurable; hence, are only obtained through observation. 

Part 2 

The Keeling Curve refers to a measurement of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere occurring on top of Mauna Loa, Hawaii, since 1958. The curve serves as the oldest and longest-running measurement technique globally. 

The Keeling Curve offers an empirical data because it displays CO2 emissions received via senses, especially by observation as well as reporting of behaviors and trends of climate via experimentation. 

The current levels of carbon dioxide exceeds 400ppm in Hawaii’s Mauna Loa. The levels of carbon dioxide, however, were about 200-280ppm during the ice age. Over the centuries, these levels will increase to around 1500ppm, indicating a drastic rise in the CO2 concentration because of the increase in the use of fossil fuel. 

The Keeling Curve is a scientific method because it involves determining of an issue (climate change and global warming), which requires by forming opinions, conducting experiments over a prolonged duration, making findings, concluding, and making recommendations to address the issue. 

Part 3 

Empirical evidence encompass data or measurements gathered through direct experimentation or observation ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . In my field, two research approaches are used to collect empirical data and measurements: quantitative and qualitative techniques. Qualitative data collection is used to evaluate the reasons for specific human conduct, especially in the preliminary stages of conducting an experiment ( Taper & Lele, 2010) . Quantitative data, on the other hand, is gathered from existing numerical data. The collected information is then appraised using statistical techniques. 

Section 2: Earthquakes, Geologic Structures, and Plate Tectonics 

Part 1 

S-P, sec	Magnitude	Amplitude, mm
4	2	5
8	4	2
20	5.5	100
2	3	20

Calculation of rate of movement of Pacific plate 

Midway = 48 million yrs 

Gardner = 75million yrs 

Necker = 141 million yrs 

Oahu = 6 million yrs 

The measurements used by the Mercalli scale is based on the observed results and intensity of the earthquake while the Richter scale examines the energy released or seismic waves created the earthquake. While the Mercalli scale describes the intensity of the event, the Richter scale describes the magnitude of the earthquake. 

More energy is produced 100 more times in an earthquake rated 6.0 than an earthquake rated 4.0. 

Although seismologists tend to separate seismic waves into many groups, the principal kinds of waves are split into two: surface waves and body waves. The primary types of waves include P-waves (primary waves), S-waves (secondary waves), and Surface waves (L-wave and R-wave). P-waves are classified as the waves travelling the fastestvia media such as gas, liquid, and solid. Propagation of P-waves is longitudinal and they are often harmless in case of damages. S-waves refer to shear waves developing or arriving immediately after the P-waves. They tend to have limited damage. Surface waves (Love and Rayleigh) are associated with profound damages in case of an earthquake. As opposed to P- and S-waves, surface waves move on the surface, characterizing the significant level of surface energy. Their movement is also slow and prolonged. 

Part 2 

In regards to faulting, stress developed by compression creates reverse faults. Reverse faults are created in the event of compressional tectonic regimes because the term reverse means taking place in the opposite of what is considered a normal fault ( Gudmundsson, 2011) . 

Normal faults would be found in a tensional regime. Tensional stress often takes place at divergent plates; that is, in a scenario where two plates in the regime are moving apart (away from each other) (Price, 2016). Comprehensive regimes produce reverse faults because the two plates move toward each other. 

There are three key differences between a normal fault and a reverse fault: (a) normal faults occur in a tensional regime while reverse faults are triggered in a compressional regime; (b) normal faults are characterized by the down-throw moving away from the up-throw while reverse fault involve the up-throw moving over the down-throw; (c) normal faults creates an escarpment because of an expose of the fault while reverse faults lack any expose of the plane ( Gudmundsson, 2011) . 

Anticlines denote the folds in which part of the fold (half) sinks away from the topmost section (crest). Synclines, on the other hand, refer to folds in which each section of the fold sinks or dips toward to the fold’s trough ( Gudmundsson, 2011) . Often, the difference between the two formation can described by anticlines having “A” shape while synclines making “S” at the bottom. 

The rock age unit relationship between domes and basins occur because depressed layers from diverse geologic activity and materials in basins ( Zulauf, Zulauf, & Zanella, 2016) . The overlaps marking the rock age difference are evident because basins tend to feature older rocks than domes. Dome structures only occur in place in which forces acting deep below the crust have pushed a section of the earth upward ( Zulauf, Zulauf, & Zanella, 2016) . Basins, however, feature gently depressed layers of diverse geologic material. 

Strike-slip fault refer to nearly vertical or vertical fractures in which the blocks forming the structure have majorly shifted horizontally ( Gudmundsson, 2011) . Fundamentally, if the block appearing on the opposite of an onlooker shifts to the right, the style of the slip is described as right literal. The slip is left-literal if the piece moves to the left. 

Joints or faults are formed by brittle deformation 

Folds are formed by ductile deformation. Folds are formed predominantly by shear or compressional stresses operating over a considerable duration ( Gudmundsson, 2011) . 

The diagrams formed by ductile deformation are B, D, F, G, and H. 

The diagrams formed by brittle deformation are A, C, E, and I. 

References 

Gudmundsson, A. (2011).  Rock fractures in geological processes . Cambridge University Press. 

Price, N. J. (2016). Fault and joint development: in brittle and semi-brittle rock. Elsevier . 

Taper, M. L., & Lele, S. R. (Eds.). (2010).  The nature of scientific evidence: statistical, philosophical, and empirical considerations . University of Chicago Press. 

Zulauf, J., Zulauf, G., & Zanella, F. (2016). Formation of dome and basin structures: Results from scaled experiments using non-linear rock analogues.  Journal of Structural Geology ,  90 , 1-14.