Structural-Functionalist Theory
Structural functionalist theory is a theory that views society as a dynamic framework whose various parts work in harmony to promote stability as well as solidarity. The theory examines the society via a macro-stage which is a wide focus on the structure of the society that defines the entire society and believes the society has transformed like organisms ( Mulkay, 2014 ). The theory looks at social functions as well as social structure. It also addresses the society as a whole in terms of constituents’ elements functions such as norms, traditions, institutions, and customs. In sociology, the structural-functionalist theory came from Emile Durkheim who viewed the society as a kind of organism that brings with it certain needs that must be complete.
On the other hand, Talcott Parsons examined the extensive societies with regards to integration, stability, and social order. According to Talcott, the structural-functionalist theory explains the relationship of different parts of the system with each other and to the whole ( Parsons, 1991 ). These parts work in a systematic manner without a huge divergence. The different parts are at equilibrium, moving toward equilibrium together which results in the interrelationships of parts. Therefore, the structural functionalist theory is a theory which focuses on the social structure where the purpose of elements such as norms, institutions, and tradition are substantively addressed.
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Theory of social conflict
The theory of social conflict theory views the entire society as an inequality avenue that generates social change as well as conflict. Most sociologists use the macro-stage theory of orientation because it examines the entire society and reveals how the theory shapes the lives of people. The social conflict theory uses terms such as power, inequality, competition, exploitation, and authority. Some of the notable utilized term in the theory of social conflict is authority ( Oberschall, 1978 ). The authority takes into consideration race, ethnicity and patriarchy as well as family hierarchies of authority. The inequality views on how individuals are handled and perceived by others.
Additionally, another term is competition that is ingrained in every individual. Karl Marx illustrates the social conflict theory using two sets of individuals in the society (the poor and wealthy). He examines the outcome of these groups if one group decides to have more control over each other. Marx also examines what happens and the role these two groups will play incase of conflict. Once the poor and wealthy side is selected, the revolt will begin and Marx will be keen on the dominating class inner workings to see how they retain their status at the end of the conflict. It is the theory that talks about people in power wanting to stay in power and that not in power wanting to gain power. The theory starts with Karl Marx and transforms to involve numerous other theories.
Theory of Symbolic Interactionist
It is a sociological theory that focuses on the analysis symbolic social interactions aspects. The symbolic interactionist theory is a frame of references that enable people to better understand how people interact with one another to create symbolic worlds and in return shape individual behaviors. The theory helps people to understand how society is preserved and developed through repeated interactions between individuals. The process of interpretation occurs between interactions that assist in creating and recreating meaning. The shared understanding and interpretations of meaning affects the interaction of individuals.
The theory of symbolic interactionist bases on three basic premises. The first premise indicates that individuals respond to environment based on the values they acquire in the environment. Secondly, these values are the product of the daily interpersonal interactions. Finally, the socio-cultural values are subject to change due to the individual perception within such interactions. The symbolic interactionism representatives emphasize that individuals are social creatures that have the ability to communicate through symbols ( LaRossa and Reitzes, 2009 ). Besides, the signals are utilized for normative behavior regulatory policy in the society while symbols facilitate communicative behavior.
Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons is one of the major American theorists of the 20th sociology. He started writing in the 1930s and has contributed immensely in the field of sociology, psychology, anthropology and political science. With regard to empirical information, Parsons social action theory was the first wide, systematic as well as generalized theory of social systems ever developed in Europe and the US. However, Parson’s structural functionalism has received a lot of criticism in sociology. Many critics and scholars point out the little emphasis of Parson on the basics of social change, political and monetary struggle and the enormous manipulative conduct unregulated by standards as well as qualities. A substantial part of Parson’s work appears to be inadequate with regard to definitions that concern the relationship among non-institutionalized as well as institutionalized procedures and conduct by which institutionalization occurs.
On structural functionalism, the work of Parson was greatly influenced by Max Weber and Durkheim who processed their work into action theory. Parson based his work on the concept of system theory and voluntary action methodological principle. On the structural functionalism theory, Parson emphasizes that individuals’ action are responsible for social system. Accordingly, his starting point is focused on the relationship between two groups of people that experience various choices constrained by the social and physical factors. More so, he determined that the expectations of a person are responsible for the action of others that react to his or her behavior. The expectations of such an individual can be deduced from accepted norms and values of the society they inhabit.
In a general context, Parsons emphasizes that there exist no perfect fit between norms and behaviors and therefore such a relationship is never perfect or complete. The issue of social norms was problematic to Parsons but he never claimed that those social norms were accepted and agreed upon. In his sociology work, Parsons describes a role as an individual normatively-regulated participation that is in a strengthened social interaction process with particular concrete role-partners. As much as any person can accomplish any role theoretically, it is expected that he or she comply with the norms that manage the nature of the role they accomplish. Later, Parsons developed the roles’ ideas into a collection of roles that complement each other in accomplishing society functions. Parsons adds that some roles are only restricted in institutions as well as social structures ( Parsons, 1991 ). These roles are functional in the sense that they help the society in operating and accomplishing its functional needs for the smooth running of the society.
However, in structural-functionalist theory, Parsons has never spoken about a society where there is some kind of perfect equilibrium. In this regard, the cultural value-system of society is not integrated. Reaching a perfect equilibrium is just a mere question in Parsons’ social system analysis. According to Parsons, the main system reproduction processes are social control as well as socialization. Socialization is significant because it is a mechanism that transfers the values and norms of the society to people in the system. It is supported by negative and positive sanctioning of role behaviors that do or do not meet these expectations. The society would become static or unchanging if two processes are perfect and in reality, this is unlikely to happen. As much as Parsons structural functionalist theory description has numerous weaknesses, Parsons has contributed immensely to the sociology of the 20th century.
References
LaRossa, R., & Reitzes, D. C. (2009). Symbolic interactionism and family studies. In Sourcebook of family theories and methods (pp. 135-166). Springer, Boston, MA.
Mulkay, M. (2014). Functionalism, Exchange and Theoretical Strategy (RLE Social Theory) . Routledge.
Oberschall, A. (1978). Theories of social conflict. Annual review of sociology , 4 (1), 291-315.
Parsons, T. (1991). The social system . Psychology Press.
