Poverty is currently one of the most challenging and multifaceted issues that are facing the world. Even though the rate of poverty is reducing in many parts of the world, including developing countries, it is still high. The majority of people living in extreme poverty live in developing countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. The disparity in poverty between men and women is not a new phenomenon and can be traced back thousands of years ago. Consequently, in the 1970s, the term feminization of poverty was coined to explain the poverty disparity between men and women in the society. The term refers to the difference in the level of poverty between men and women, which is mainly caused by socio-economic, structural, and institutional biases ( Moghadam, 2005) . Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of the feminization of poverty. Specifically, it provides a comprehensive definition of the term; its relationship with socio-economic, structure, and institutions; impact on individuals and society; and remedies to the problem.
Definition of Feminization of Poverty
“Feminization of poverty” is a term that is common and extensively used in many development debates, especially those involving women. The term was first used in 1976 by Diana Pearce after she closely studied and observed the status and condition of women in American society. Pearce observed that about two-thirds of adult women were and a significant percentage came from disadvantaged groups in the society. She concluded that women account for the largest percentage of the poor people in America ( Moghadam, 2005) . When formulating the term, Pearce argued poverty among women is a process that is influenced by some factors, including social, economic, political, and institutional factors. Therefore, feminization of poverty mainly focuses on the level and causes of poverty among women in any given society.
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Consequently, feminization of poverty is defined as a situation in which women experience poverty as a rate that is disproportionately high compared to their male counterparts. At the same time, the term is commonly defined as the change in the level poverty that is biased against women or households that are headed by women. It is the disparity in the level of poverty between men and women in which the latter is disadvantaged ( Moghadam, 2005) . Hence, the definition of the feminization of poverty is based on three main assumptions. First, it is assumed that women have a higher incidence of poverty than men. Secondly, the definition is based on the assumption that poverty among women is more severe compared to that of men. Thirdly, it is assumed that poverty among women is increasing at a higher rate compared to their male counterparts. Therefore, the term feminization of poverty refers to the level of poverty among women compared to men.
However, unlike the definition of poverty in women that is mainly based on the existence of poverty, feminization of poverty is viewed as a process. It is a relative term that is not only restricted to the worsening level of poverty among women, but also the trends affect lives of poor people ( Moghadam, 2005) . For instance, if the level of poverty is sharply reducing among men while gradually declining among women, then the trend can be referred to as the feminization of poverty. As a result, the definition of the term goes beyond a mere level of poverty among women. It is a term that is broadly used to explore poverty among female members of society.
The interrelationship between Feminization of Poverty and Socio-economic Trends, Structures, and Institutions
Feminization of gender is a phenomenon that is caused by many factors that are interrelated and influence one another. According to many feminists and some of the scholars who have researched the topic, feminization of poverty is mainly caused by socio-economic inequalities between men and women as well as biases against women and girl child in many countries in the world ( Chant, 2014) . Economists have also argued that feminization of poverty is as a result of the implementation of gender-insensitive and neoliberal economic policies in many economies globally. Besides, the social problem is caused by the demographical changes in the society, especially about the significant increase in the number of households that are headed by women, particularly in developed countries.
Socio-economic inequalities are the main factors that are influencing the feminization of poverty across the globe. Importantly, the unequal access and utilization of social institutions such as education are significantly causing the higher rate of poverty among women compared to me ( Moghadam, 2005) . The inequality concerning access and utilization of education services is a factor that is mainly associated with increased feminization of poverty, especially in the 19 th century ( Moghadam, 2005) . Even though the access to education by girls has increased significantly in both developed and developing countries, there are still some new trends that are enhancing feminization of poverty. Many girls are now enrolling in primary schools than in 20 years ago. However, the number of girls keeps on reducing disproportionately compared to boys as they move to higher levels of education such as secondary, colleges, and universities (UN, 2015). At the same time, despite a substantial increase in the number of women in colleges and universities, female students are acutely underrepresented in technical fields such as science, engineering, and mathematics. Besides, women are a distant minority in advanced degree programs that are related to scientific fields.
The inability of women to get the quality education is closely related to fewer women formal employment and disparity in remuneration. With high levels of illiteracy and lack of relevant knowledge and skills required in the job market, the number of women in formal employment is lower than that of their male counterparts. Consequently, based on the report that was released by UN in 2015, only 50% of total women are in the labor force compared to 77% of men (UN, 2015). It is more likely for women to get unemployed than men, even if they have some skills, knowledge, and experience required to do a particular job. Even though the number of women entering the labor force is increasing globally, the situation is still worse in North Africa and many parts of the Asian continent, particularly Western Asia and Southern Asia (UN, 2015). Consequently, many women are not able to earn significant income that they can use to meet their basic needs, leading to their higher level of poverty compared to male counterparts.
The disparity in access to education is mainly associated with cultural and intra-household inequalities. The preference of boy-child over girl-child in many societies, especially in developing countries is making fewer girls access quality education compared to their male counterparts (UN, 2015). In many cases, particularly when a household is faced financial constraints, a boy-child is more likely to take to school than girl-child. Consequently, according to the recent report that United Nations (UN), two-thirds of the total global population that is illiterate is women and the trend has remained constant for the last two decades (UN, 2015). The illiteracy level is higher among women than men, making the former to be vulnerable and languish in poverty while the latter is progressing well with education and are dominating the job market.
Intra-household inequalities are factors that are enhancing feminization of poverty, particularly in developing countries. The unequal distribution of resources between men and women in the household is a trend that dates back many centuries ago ( Moghadam, 2005) . Some of the cultural practices in developing countries did not allow women to inherit or control some of the crucial resources such as land. At the same time, in both developed and developing countries, traditionally, women activities were restricted to household chores, and they were not allowed to participate in any productive activities ( Moghadam, 2005) . In some cases, women may be economically productive, but they are denied the legal rights to either own or inherit properties.
The implementation of various policies in both private and public institution is a factor that is influencing the feminization of poverty across the globe. The introduction of economic policies by various government institutions such as reduced expenditure on welfare services increased privatization of state-owned enterprises, and the introduction of many taxes is negatively affecting more women than men ( Moghadam, 2005) . The majorities of women earn meager income and depend on government subsidies and welfare services to meet their needs. At the same time, some of the policies that are implemented by private organization do not favor women worker, particularly due to their biological role of giving birth and attending to household chores. Many women are not able to effectively balance work and family demands and pressure, forcing them to leave employment for the sake of family ( Moghadam, 2005) . As a result, many women are not able to earn any income once they are out of employment. Also, women are always the victims in cases when private institutions are reducing their workforce, as skilled and semi-skilled workers are likely to be retrenched during retrenchment.
In many cases, women do not always enjoy the same relationship with the labor as men, especially in patriarchal societies that are characterized by intra-household inequalities and discrimination against women ( Moghadam, 2005) . The geographical and occupational mobility of women is also constrained by their familial roles as well as children bearing responsibilities. In some patriarchal structured societies, women are not as autonomous as men, and they are not allowed to make independent decisions regarding their employment ( Moghadam, 2005) . Therefore, the socio-economic trends, structures, institutions, and feminization of poverty are closely interrelated, and they influence one another. As a result, feminization of poverty is a complex social problem that is influenced by many factors.
Impact of Feminization of Poverty on Individuals and the Society
One of the major impacts of the feminization of poverty is poor health among family members, especially mothers and children. With increased feminization of poverty, many women are not able to access quality healthcare services ( Chant, 2014) . The cost of healthcare is increasing in many parts of the world, and it is becoming harder for poor people to access quality healthcare services. At the same time, feminization of poverty means that women earn low income and are not able to benefit get health insurance coverage. As a result, women, and children are most likely to rely on basic healthcare services that are not effective in addressing their health problems. Lack of quality healthcare services results in the poor health of women and children who are the most victims of poverty.
Apart from poor healthcare services, feminization of poverty leads to malnutrition, particularly in children who live in poor households that are headed by women. Children from poor household often suffer from inadequate protein and energy, which is mainly caused by the micronutrients. Besides, cases of underweight are common among children who are born in poor families. According to Ngoma & Mayimbo (2017), cases of underweight are most prevalent in children who are born in poor families. Unlike children with normal weight, underweight children have higher risks of death, particularly from infectious illness pneumonia and diarrhea. Mothers who are not able to eat nutritious and healthy food are likely to give birth to low-weight-children, leading to high levels of infant mortality in poor women-headed households (Ngoma & Mayimbo, 2017). Therefore, poverty not only leads to malnutrition among children but also their mothers. Feminization of poverty mainly affects the disadvantaged and vulnerable people like children and women in the society.
Poor housing and living conditions is another major impact of poverty on individuals. Feminization of poverty forces women to live in overcrowded and poor living conditions in various parts urban areas ( Chant, 2014) . The poor housing and living condition is posing additional health risks to mothers and children. The poor living conditions explain why poor mothers and women are more likely to be diagnosed with airborne diseases like pneumonia and tuberculosis. Housing is also a major problem for many women due to the feminization of poverty. A significant number of women are rendered homeless due to poverty. For instance, due to poverty and feminization of poverty, the number of homeless women in Australia has increased to 21% and is rising at a faster rate compared to those of men ( Baxendale, 2017) . Also, between 2016 and 2017, 60% of the total people seeking assistance for homelessness were women, which is a worrying trend due to the vulnerability of women.
Feminization of poverty is also pushing many women to work in unsafe working environments that are characterized by many work-related hazards or risks. Many women are working in the agricultural sector where they are exposed to pesticide poisoning, bites from poisonous insects, and risk of getting injuries from farm machinery ( Valdez, Kaplan & Curtis Jr, 2007) . Also, the number of women abusing drugs is increasing due to poverty. Poor women use alcohol and drug abuse as a way of coping with their stressful situations in life. Therefore, feminization of poverty can lead to self-destructive behaviors among women.
At the society level, feminization of poverty is the major cause of social tensions that are likely to divide and nation and cause conflicts. It causes an increase in poverty in the society, leading a surge in anti-social behaviors, violent, and violation of laws that are aimed at maintaining societal order ( Valdez, Kaplan & Curtis Jr, 2007) . People are likely to break the rule when they are not able to meet their basic needs. Feminization also leads to an unhealthy population in the whole society. Women play important role in the determination of the health of society, especially due to their childbearing responsibilities. Consequently, unhealthy population affects the general productivity of the society.
Solving the Problem
Enhancement of the economic capacity of women is one of the best strategies that both private and public institutions can use to solve feminization of poverty problems that is now affecting millions of women across the globe. Women should be encouraged and motivated to actively participate in the economic sectors of their respective countries ( Chant, 2014) . As a result, the government should formulate and strictly implement policies that require the equal employment of men and women in all industries. On the other hand, a private organization should come up with recruitment policies that are aimed at absorbing many women in the labor market (Ngoma & Mayimbo, 2017). Poverty among women can be reduced when their economic capacity is enhanced.
Providing education for women is another best strategy that the government should use to solve the problem. Education is believed to be the major equalizer in the society, and it significantly assists in bridging the gap between the poor and the rich. Education is also able to reduce inequalities in the society ( Chant, 2014) . Therefore, like men, more women should be motivated to acquire quality education. Education will empower women to be active in the formal labor market and to overcome some of the problems they encounter in life.
Conclusion
Feminization of poverty started way back in the 1970s, and it is still being practiced in many parts of the world, in both developed and developing countries. This social problem that is affecting a significant percentage of women globally is mainly caused by socio-economic inequalities, cultural practices in many countries, government policies that favor men at the expense of women. Feminization of women has a significant impact on women and children because they are the most vulnerable and disadvantaged in the society. It is associated with poor health, malnutrition, poor living condition, homelessness, and increased anti-social behaviors, especially among women. Also, it affects the safety and productivity of the whole society. The problem can be solved by enhancing the economic capacity of women and improving access to quality education by women.
References
Baxendale, R. (2017, December 14). Homelessness among young women on the rise, new figures show. The Australian . Retrieved from https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/homelessness-among-young-women-on- the-rise-new-figures-show/news-story/58199e13ab6205fd8041c5d11adc7f6b
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Moghadam, V. M. (2005). SHS Papers in Women’s Studies/Gender Research . Retrieved from http://www.cpahq.org/cpahq/cpadocs/Feminization_of_Poverty.pdf
Ngoma, C., & Mayimbo, S. (2017). The Negative Impact of Poverty on the Health of Women and Children. Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research , 7(2), 442-446.
United Nations (UN). (2015). The World’s Women 2015: Trends and Statistics . Retrieved from https://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/downloads/WorldsWomen2015_report.pdf
Valdez, A., Kaplan, C. D., & Curtis Jr, R. L. (2007). Aggressive crime, alcohol and drug use, and concentrated poverty in 24 US urban areas. The American journal of drug and alcoholabuse , 33 (4), 595-603.
