Location
The world has seen many architectural works that have for considerably long periods of time stood out as unique having been constructed for different reasons. These works continue holding a paramount spot within world history and have been interesting to study about. One such fascinating architectural work is the Borobudur Buddhist Temple ( Dumarçay, 2007) . The great temple located in Indonesia on Java Island more precisely in Kedu Valley.
Architecture
The great temple has been described by historians as a dome-shaped structure where such structures were traditionally used as Buddhists places of worship. Studies in Ching, Jarzombek, and Prakash (2017) allude to the fact that the temple has a unique architectural design having been built around a hill in three tiers. The temple has been constructed with concentric square terraces on a pyramidal base making it close in resemblance to the great Egyptian pyramids. Furthermore, historians have continued to describe the temple as having balustrades and walls surrounded by fine low reliefs with additional seventy-two openwork stupas around which are decorated with Buddha statues ( Dumarçay, 2007) . It can be concluded that the Borobudur temple has been divided vertically into a body, base, and a superstructure making it congruent with the Universe concept as is viewed in the Buddhist cosmology ( Ching et al., 2017) . According to the cosmology, the universe has three distinct spheres of desire, forms, and formlessness with each sphere holding integral meaning within the Buddha religion.
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Studies point out that the great temple has three significant monuments consisting of two small temples and the main Borobudur temple ( Dumarçay, 2007) . The three temples within the Borobudur temple have been indicated to point out to the deity that was being worshipped. It can be concluded that the compound with the temple shows monumental arts and Buddhist architecture which is synonymous with the Indonesian arts and culture that had a notable influence on the architectural revival that occurred from the middle of the thirteenth and early sixteenth century (Wang, 2018) . There has been a widespread opinion that the temple contributes to a unique reflection of the indigenous ancestor worship in addition to the attaining Nirvana concept of the Buddhist religion. Furthermore, there is a close linkage created between the architectural design and the consequential stages through which Bodhisattva has to go through prior to attainment of Buddha-hood.
The journey to the temple
Devotees going for worship within the Borobudur temple undertake a considerably unique journey. To begin with, the temple as noted earlier is set high on a central hill with a sequence of open-air passages radiating around a cosmic axis ( Zwaan & Zwaan, 2017) . Consequently, devotees have to move along walkways on a clockwise direction gradually ascending to the uppermost levels of the temple. According to historians, the ascension towards the top levels of the temple indicates the theological adherents that Buddhists take towards enlightenment ( Wang, 2018) . Furthermore, the sculptures that have been meticulously carved point out to a spiritual and physical journey through which devotees and pilgrims have to progress towards in order to achieve higher consciousness states.
It is worth mentioning that the decorative reliefs synonymous with the temple play a pivotal role in providing narration for the Buddha teachings such as Dharma, illustrating the numerous events that are related to Buddha's past lives as given in the Jataka tales. Additionally, the decorations point out to the notable didactic stories that have been extracted from the sutras, the Buddhist scriptures.
Building the temple
Historians attribute the building of the magnificent temple of Borobudur to the Sailendra dynasty. Studies in Fontein (2012) show that the dynasty having ascended to power towards the end of the eighth century commissioned the building of the Borobudur temple during the ninth century even though different scholars have provided differing time periods during which the temple was built. The Sailendra dynasty which loosely translates into “Lord of the Mountain” is assumed to have gotten its name from the numerous Central Java’s volcanic mountains ( Zwaan & Zwaan, 2017) . Studies into the dynasty allude to the fact that it practiced intensive rice cultivation with a strict hierarchical administration that took control of water irrigation allocation. Conclusions have been drawn that the dynasty held closely the concept of the God-King what is popularly known within the Buddhist culture as “Dewa-Raja” which is a belief that kings held a divine power and as such as compared to a living god among the subjects.
Studies allude to the fact that the Sailendra dynasty had notable connections as well as access to northern coast Java ports which made it possible for the dynasty to gain wealth from the maritime trade and ties with other kingdoms such as the Srivijaya kingdom which was strong in the southern Sumatra ( Clarion, n.d.) . To show the strength with which the Sailendra dynasty wielded, studies have pointed out to further control of the spice route trade together with the Srivijaya kingdom. Noting that the Sailendra dynasty was a committed Mahayana Buddhism follower, they made a significant impact in the religion through the construction of several temples within Java.
Reasons for construction of the Borobudur temple
Different postulations have been put forward with regard to why the Borobudur temple was built. However, the numerous reasons that have been put forward have varied from scholars. First, as it has been indicated, the Sailendra dynasty which was ruling the central Java region was a devout follower of the Mahayana Buddhism. Historians have indicated that the dynasty was responsible for building several temples across the Java region which has been attributed to the devout following of Buddhism which can by extension be attributed to the construction of the Borobudur temple ( Clarion, n.d.) . Furthermore, the dynasty had vast wealth mainly from their control of the rice cultivation within central Java in addition to the maritime ties as well as the spice route trade.
Additionally, even though there were existing labor constraints during the construction period of the temple, there was extensive voluntary service by men from the region ( Howard, 2018) . Research studies confirm the voluntary service of men working in the construction of the temple noting that even though no payments were made, the workers applied for the work. Therefore, it can be concluded that the purpose of the dynasty as well as the voluntary workers to participate in the construction of the temple was primarily due to the need for gaining spiritual merit and value.
Cultural information
The classical age of Indonesia can be viewed as corresponding to the classical age of the Ancient Greek. During this period that was preceded by the Vedic age, significant changes took place within the cultural map of Indonesia ( Duiker & Spielvogel, 2016) . The issues of religion, artwork, literature, and urban civilization took the center stage.
Religion
During the classical era, religion held a significant place within Indonesia seeing the emergence of two distinct religious groupings, Jainism and Buddhism. It is without a doubt that Buddhism would emerge as one of the great world religions transforming to Hinduism influencing the whole of South East and East Asia ( Zwaan & Zwaan, 2017) . The cultural landscape of Indonesia, especially during the middle classical period, is clearly brought out by the great temple at Borobudur. Indonesia stands out as being populated by a diverse population with different languages, ethnicities, and cultures. It is worth noting that the temple depicts significant cultural relevance especially with respect to religion. Most notably, the central Java region was predominantly subscribing to Buddhism prior to the conversion of the people into Muslims. The presence of Buddha heads around the temple serves as a clear indication of the commitment of the Javanese to Buddhism.
Furthermore, cultural information that is portrayed by the temple is the act that while Buddhism stood out as the main religion, there were different deities that were worshiped within the temple ( Duiker & Spielvogel, 2016) . As such, the religiosity of the people is a strong theme that is covered within the temple. Additionally, the different Buddha statues have been shown to have different positions depicting different meanings. As such, it can be concluded that the Javanese believed in numerous mythical spiritual beings possessing a connection to Buddha.
Karma
The cultural belief of cause and effect referred to as the law of karma is a strong message within the temple. Throughout the temple, there are stories and paintings that have been made pointing out to illustrations of cause and effect. For example, there are drawings depicting blameworthy activities that are ranging from murder to gossip and have been accompanied by their subsequent punishments ( Duiker & Spielvogel, 2016) . Furthermore, praiseworthy activities have also been drawn with notable activities such as the pilgrimage to sanctuaries and charities with accompanying rewards are clearly depicted. One example that can be given depicting the law of karma is a scene drawn in a hidden foot of the Borobudur showing people who have been engaged in killing others, feeding on turtles and fish. In what seems to be a series of events, these individuals are shown to be tortured in hell by being cut, cooked alive, and being thrown in burning houses. Subsequently, it can be viewed that the Javanese Buddhists held a strong cultural belief on the principle of karma and most probably used the principle to guide morality and instill discipline within the people.
Artwork
The theme of artwork cannot probably go unnoticed when the temple of Borobudur is under study. During the middle classical period, Indonesia stands out as a place where the artwork is highly developed and is being used to not only beautify but also make expressions. For example, the numerous bas-reliefs within the temple have extensive artwork mainly on the walls with different scenes showing the various daily life activities for the commoners, royal families, and the marketplaces. It is without a doubt that artwork was used as a way of expression showing the fashion and designs that were prominent in Indonesia ( Cantey, 2018) . Additionally, musical scenes have been explicitly drawn on the walls of the Borobudur showing the strong connection that the people Indonesia had towards music especially in the classical period. Writing as part of art was seen to develop within Indonesia from the influence that trade and urbanization had on the country. The ability to write is expressed within the artwork within the Borobudur temple signifying that literature had taken an important role at the time as a way of expression.
Farming and trade
The Borobudur temple brings out an integral part of the farming and trade culture within Indonesia at the time of the temple’s construction. As noted earlier, the Sailendra dynasty which played a critical role in the construction of the temple was largely involved in the rice cultivation. Moreover, the dynasty was having string trade ties with neighboring dynasties as well as countries across the region. It can be argued that the strength and wealth that the dynasty accumulated from trade and rice farming was a significant contributor to the building of the temple ( Cantey, 2018) . Additionally, it is during this era that iron working became a critical part of farming. The construction of the temple brings out the possible use of iron tools for construction as well as farming. Arguably, iron tools may have been brought in Indonesia through the expansive trade ties that the country had with other territories. Farming and trade gave the Java region and Indonesia as a whole the exposure to the outside world creating an exchange forum where the significant influence from outside Indonesia found its way into the country bringing imminent changes.
Conclusion
The great temple of Borobudur has been cited as the most magnificent temple in addition to being among the largest monuments in the world. The temple whose construction is estimated to have taken nearly one hundred years is an expression of intelligence and unique architectural design. It can be concluded that the temple stands out as having a special place within the history of Indonesia and as such has a lasting legacy. The pride and grandeur of the Indonesians have been constantly evoked by the technical and aesthetic mastery of the Borobudur temple in addition to its large size consequently becoming a powerful symbol for the nation.
Even though the temple was lost at some point in time, it was later rediscovered consequently being opened up as a pilgrimage and tourist attraction site. The reconstruction can be seen as signifying the revival of Buddhism in Indonesia noting that Islam had quickly spread through the country.
To assert the significance of the temple of Borobudur, several archeological relics that have been taken from the temple are continuously being put to display at various national museums. As a national icon, the Borobudur temple appears on the emblem of Central Java in addition to having been featured in publications, books, banknotes, and documentaries to promote tourism in Indonesia. Furthermore, the Borobudur hotel and Borobudur University stamp the unique place that the temple holds within Indonesia.
References
Cantey, S. (2018). The Middle East and South Asia 2018-2019 . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Ching, F. D., Jarzombek, M. M., & Prakash, V. (2017). A Global History of Architecture . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Clarion, T. (n.d.). Asian Exposures & Comparisons: Indonesia . Booksmango.
Duiker, W. J., & Spielvogel, J. J. (2016). The Essential World History, Volume I: To 1800 . Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Dumarçay, J. (2007). Candi Sewu and Buddhist architecture of Central Java . Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia.
Fontein, J. (2012). Entering the Dharmadhātu: A Study of the Gandavyūha Reliefs of Borobudur . Leiden, Netherlands: BRILL.
Howard, M. J. (2018). Unforgettable Ancient Sites: Mysterious Sites, Temple Complexes, Ancient Architecture . Chartwell Books.
Wang, M. C. (2018). Maṇḍalas in the Making: The Visual Culture of Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang . BRILL.
Zwaan, K., & Zwaan, I. (2017). Borobudur: Buddha's Garden of Peace and Healing . Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.
