During the pre-colonial period, the southwest region, which expands through the present day Arizona and New Mexico all the way to Mexico, Utah, Texas and Colorado, played as home to a significant group of Indians (Alchin, 2017). It is in this region that the groups carried out their social, cultural and economic activities. Among the predominant groups of Indians that lived in this region was a group of people collectively given the name Pueblo. The name was coined by Spanish to mean a town or a village because they lived in towns or villages that had permanent unique buildings characterized by their stone and mud walls and thatched roofing (New World Encyclopedia, 2015). The pueblo tribe was further subdivided into three main groups called Anasazi, Hohokam and Mogollon.
The Anasazi group is thought to be the Ancestors of the Pueblos and is said to have resided in the four corners of the southwestern region whereby the Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado converged. On the other hand, the Mogollon is thought to have dwelled in the south west of the New Mexico (Alchin, 2017). The Hohokam was thought to have dominated the desert of the south of Arizona. Historical studies estimate that the three tribes might have dominated the area from around 200-1500 CE and might have dispersed or evolved to become the Pueblo Indians. The Indian Pueblos are the ones that the Spanish came across and are still the ones that dwell in the modern day New Mexico (Nickens, Nickens & Arizona Historical Foundation, 2008). They have further developed to form the Hopi and Zuni tribes. The Navajo and the Apache tribes arrived later on in the region of the Pueblos at around 1200 CE from the Northwest of the Pacific and remained alienated from the Pueblos living in the area.
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Studies by historians indicate that the Hohokam, Mogollon and the Anasazi were among the first people to conduct farming in American history. The Ancestral Pueblos practiced subsistence agricultural farming by cultivating corns. Most of their traditional and creation stories revolve around the cultivation of corns (Nickens, Nickens, & Arizona Historical Foundation, 2008). They held that corns not only acted as nutrition nourishment but its harvesting process also played as a spiritual gift. Even though agricultural farming played a key role in the establishment of their society, the ancient Pueblos also practiced hunting and gathering (Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, 2014). This added to their nutrition for a much healthier diet as opposed to limited consumption of a diet dominated by corns.
The ancient Pueblo people had developed a complex irrigation system that helped them to maintain their crop farming throughout the season even in the dry periods. This was predominantly experienced in the arid climates of the Southwest of the region. At around 800 CE the Hohokam tribe of the Pueblo community had developed an irrigation system scheme which is considered to be one of the largest to be made (New World Encyclopedia, 2015). The irrigation system stretched through a vast area covering most parts of the modern day Arizona region. The irrigation scheme helped them to cultivate a variety of crops including corns, squash and beans.
In addition to production of more food, the elaborate irrigation systems enhanced flourishing of agricultural practices, which was an integral aspect in the production and development of their society. After the advancement pueblo woman began to practice pottery by making clayed pots enabling the community to store beans, squash and corns that were in surplus (Alchin, 2017). Moreover, they also began to build large vessels that enabled them to grind their corns. The women also practiced basketry whereby they wove baskets to help in the harvesting process. As agricultural practices were booming in the region the Apaches and the Navajos arrived from the Northwest of the pacific in around 1200 CE and retained the predominant ways of making food of their home region, hunting and gathering.
Agriculture was a major influencer in how the ancient Pueblo tribes lived. It brought with it the benefit of surplus food, which in turn gave them stability making them to be more sedentary and began living in stone and adobe house (Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, 2014). Similar to the modern day apartment complexes the ancient buildings were equipped with multiple stores, which had several rooms. Their ways of living at the time is presumed to be highly developed, as they preferred to dwell in large towns that contained a multitude of people and sophisticated residences.
Chaco Canyon was once a home for over twelve thousand Anasazi people and later was used as a trading hub. Some of the branch of the Anasazi tribe called Chacoans who lived in the canyon had created over four hundred miles of roads that inter connected other neighboring villages in the area (Nickens, Nickens & Arizona Historical Foundation, 2008). The people of Chacoans tribe mainly traded away their turquoise and travelled to the west to obtain seashells from California, to the north to obtain mineral ores from the Rocky Mountains and to the south to obtain exotic birds from the central of America (New World Encyclopedia, 2015). The Apaches and the Navajos indulged more in nomadic activities as they preferred to continue hunting and gathering. Because they were often in the move, they lacked permanent homes like the Pueblos. The Navajos fashioned their iconic round housing called hogans facing eastward with materials such as bark and mud.
The Pueblo people believed in agricultural farming more than hunting and gathering, as it was a more sustainable way of life in their society. However, there was an exception when a persistent drought took place between 1130-1180 CE reducing the Anasazi crops. Moreover there was a major flood that occurred in the 1358 destroying the advanced irrigation system of the Hohokam (Weiser & Legends of America, 2017). This aspect made the ancestors of Pueblos to hold spiritual ceremonies to pray to their gods for a good weather and bountiful harvest. They often conducted prayers subjected to natural entities such as animals and plants in agriculture and personal successes. The religious ceremonies acted as a social aspect and brought many people together to create greater religious communities.
The basic social unit of the Pueblo tribe was a family, which comprised of the father, mother and children. Their extended family lived and worked together. Both genders participated in the traditional women dominated agricultural processes (St Lawrence, 2006). Because the Pueblo tribe was involved less in hunting and gathering, the men within the society were incorporated in the farming processes. On the other hand, women would participate in the farming process as well as raise their children and carry out household chores tasks (St Lawrence, 2006). Some of the male would form the heads of households and were greatly involved in making informed decisions in the council of elders on how to propel their community or band. The leaders of bands had a greater impact in public relations and decision making than the tribe, which was considered, as a loosely constructed political association. The tribe was greatly involved in providing the ethnic identity of the people of the region while the band was mandated to deal with public unrest and happenings.
Ultimately, most of the ancient pueblo fled their region of foundation probably due to the great impacts of the drought. Later on, the Spanish encountered the remaining descendants of the tribe at around mid-1500s who became to be remembered as the pueblos. Most of their history is often dated from the 1600s onwards as the Spanish colonials occupied their region at around 1598 (Weiser & Legends of America, 2017). The mission of the Spanish was to Christianize the indigenous people and extract tribute for the crown. The Spanish colonizers forced their cultural ways onto the indigenous people, as they would use violence to meet their objectives. This aspect caused much hostility subjected towards the Pueblo people due to their resistance and numerous confrontations. The Pueblos successfully retaliated in 1680 and managed to drive off the Spanish authority for close to twelve years (St Lawrence, 2006).
The Spanish re-conquered the Pueblos in the year 1692 and used aggressive means of civilizing the Indians. They brought with them priests and forced their Christian religion upon them. Even though some of the indigenous people were converted into Christianity, their cultural ways were minimally changed. The colonization added onto their crops and animals such as goats, sheep, cattle and horses as well as agricultural products like apples, grapes, wheat and peaches. The re-conquest created room for the tribes to settle down (Weiser & Legends of America, 2017). In 1696, there was a resistance call whereby nearly half of the Pueblos resisted the colonialism causing the death of a number of Spaniards and five missionaries. However, this resistance was not so strong and the Spanish regained control once more.
By the 18 th century, the colonial violence and epidemic disease had significantly reduced the population of the indigenous people and their settlements. This caused the number of pueblo communities to reduce significantly from around 75 to between 25 and 30 (Weiser & Legends of America, 2017). At around the same time there was still around eleven missions in use in the region. In the modern times, only five of these are in use in the New Mexico. Even though Mexico gained its independent from the Spanish in the 1821, there were several retaliatory attacks after the Taos revolted killing an American governor in 1847. The American government responded to this attack by killing more than 150 Indians (St Lawrence, 2006). Regardless of these changes most of their ancestral craft production, agricultural, languages, religion and cultural ways persisted. The ancient tribal ways still govern the modern day pueblos and even though most of them remain Catholics, they still adhere to their ancient cultural ways.
The governing aspect of the tribe is a controversial issue in the modern day government since it is not clear as to who should hold or exercise the sovereign power over a variety of governing activities. Legal entities such as the US judiciary, congress, federal executive branch, the states and the tribes themselves possess a claim to power and the balance between these powers has changed over time (Indian Country Diaries, 2006). This aspect has brought about confusion and at some point, the Pueblo tribe are forced to act under federal policies that contradicts one another. A situation arises when the tribes have to follow the sovereign government units that are similar to the states within the federal system. Additional situations force them to act as special interest groups and other times they have to balance between the two policy situations, which are a difficult thing.
Ever since the 1970s, the federal government has put some efforts in trying to return the control and certain powers to the tribes. For instance, there is a signed contract between the government and the Indian tribes to allow them to administrate their school systems as a substitute to the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). There is also an agreement of allowing the legal jurisdiction by the tribesmen pertaining to certain crimes (Indian Country Diaries, 2006). At around 1990, there was an amendment by the congress on the education and self-determination act, which allowed the tribes to over the management of the programs previously reserved by the administered BIA. As a consequent, the tribes now manage the housing projects, health services and education programs.
Despite this well intentioned move of self-determination there are still challenges in the distribution of funds as most of it come from the federal government. As a result, the Indian tribes are forced to act as self interest groups, going to extreme steps of lobbying the white house and the congress to get the funding. The release of the funds also requires tedious and time-consuming processes as the tribes men have to appear before the administration and the congress to affirm the modifications in the federal laws and more allocations for running the tribal programs (Indian Country Diaries, 2006). When it comes to the matters of election the tribes has to act as both a special interest group and sovereign entity. The issue of tax paying exemptions especially in casino gaming is a contentious issue which brings to question the sovereignty of the tribes. These games are making huge amount of money and the government want a share from the tribes in form of tax. The government cites that the Indians use roads and infrastructure constructed using the state’s money (Indian Country Diaries, 2006). As such, the states have been filling lawsuits and passing laws within the country with an attempt of getting a share of the revenue. On the other hand, most of the Indian tribes have resisted this move armed with the assertion of their sovereign rights.
In conclusion, the ancestral lineage of the Pueblo people is believed to have lived in the Southwestern part of the modern day United States. The pueblo tribe was significantly known for their unique and elaborate constructed buildings and their agricultural ways of subsistence farming, that influenced greatly on the farming traditions of the American society. Even after the colonization by the Spanish who forced their Christianity on them, the Pueblo tribes still upholds most of their ancient cultural ways to date. One of their significant ways in the modern society is their traditional mode of governing. This aspect is still dominant in their modern ways of life, as it has heightened the conflict of interest between the tribe and the U.S. government especially in determination of who holds the sovereign power.
References
Alchin, L. (2017). Pueblo Tribe: Facts, Clothes, Food and History . Retrieved from https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/indian-tribes/pueblo-tribe.htm
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center. (2014). Pueblo Indian History for Kids . Crowcanyon.org . Retrieved from https://www.crowcanyon.org/EducationProducts/pueblo_history_kids/introduction.asp
Indian Country Diaries. (2006). Tribal Sovereignty . Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/indiancountry/challenges/sovereignty.html
New World Encyclopedia. (2015). Pueblo Indians . New World Encyclopedia . Retrieved from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Pueblo_Indians
Nickens, P. R., Nickens, K., & Arizona Historical Foundation. (2008). Pueblo Indians of New Mexico . Charleston, SC: Arcadia.
St Lawrence, G. (2006). The Pueblo and their history . Minneapolis, Minn: Compass Point Books.
Weiser, K., & Legends of America. (2017). Pueblo Indians – Oldest Culture in the U.S. Legends of America . Retrieved from https://www.legendsofamerica.com/na-puebloindians/
