The influence of dams’ construction on the biological, ecological and social well-being

Population growth has led to increased rates of energy conservation and with the fight against global warming intensifying, hydroelectric has been the main source of energy with what most would term being a source of energy with the least environmental problems. The rapid rise of energy consumption and the dramatic changes in climate has result in the increment of dam construction in most developing nations. Dams’ construction can be traced back from Ancient Egypt with the sole purpose of storing water during rainy seasons and using it for irrigation for the dry seasons (Speirs, 2016). These two benefits still dominate the reasons behind dams’ constructions although flood mitigation and hydroelectricity production have become the key factors for dams’ construction. China in its bid to compete with countries such as the U.S. have invested hydroelectricity dams that can produce over 65 billion megawatts thus ensure that their drastic energy requirement is produced at the lowest price possible (Speirs, 2016). However, ecologists are critical in the increment of dams’ construction due to the biological, ecological, and social well-being of the society.

Although dams have provided hydroelectricity that has aided in the reduction of carbon emissions to the atmosphere, helped curb floods, and provide water for irrigation, studies in the past two decades have offered a clearer image than earlier thought on the environmental degradation resulting from construction of dams. These studies are critical that as more dams’ construction projects are set by developing countries’ governments, they should be wary of the environmental harm they the dams will cause (Beck, Claassen, & Hundt, 2012). However, few studies have combined all these issues, hence the need for this paper to focus on the significant biological, ecological, diseases and impacts on the people to determine the problems caused by dams. Following the laying down of the issues based on past studies on the issues, the study offers the alternatives and solutions to the dam-based problems.

Biodiversity Loss

According to Lima and her colleagues, hydroelectric dams are the leading cause of the global decline in freshwater biodiversity. By undertaking a trait-based method to measure the effects of dam closure in fish community of Neotropical River. Lima et al. (2018) realized that one year before, one year after and five years after dam closure in eight sites located at the downstream, in the reservoir, transition zone and upstream, indicated that reproduction strategies and diets were affected by the dam. The study noted that the dam restricted movement of fish that was important to connect populations and enable lifecycles of the species (Grabowski, & Isely, 2007). The researchers undertook the study based on space and time thus realized that the dam enclosure made it impossible for the movement of the fish over time and affected the parental care and rheophilic habitat dependence among the fish that were restricted to movement (Agostinho et al., 2015). The notion is supported by Oliveira and his colleagues (2018) who argue that the water levels during the high precipitation and dry season as the water flow was too low or too much thus sweeping the eggs or tadpoles.

The study also supported past studies that depicted that the lotic species declined because that could not adapt to the lentic habitat with large fish becoming rare following the closure of the dam (Buss & Hua, 2018). The closure resulted in drying up most of the downstream rivers towards the freshwater lakes while the sedimentation in the reservoir led to intoxication and water pollution. The deposition and silt in the dams lead to the bareness in the downstream thus resulting in the loss of food and vegetation down the river. The fish fauna at the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) is affected by the changes in the hydrological system which affects the nutrients and temperatures thus enhance reproduction (Zeng et al., 2018). The diminishing population culture noted in the immediate opening of the reservoir compared to the increment in the population in the farthest part of the dam is an indication of the favorable conditions and flow of water later downstream (Bunn, & Arthington, 2002). Guzy et al. (2018) support the claims raised on the issue of biodiversity by using study in South Carolina, U.S.A.

The study tried to understand the anuran occupancy and diversity of species relative to dams and the urbanization degree of the land. It was evident that variety of species were highest farthest downstream with three more species than just below the dams. The cause of these differences were due to the alternations in flow regimes that reduced the flows that sustained the riparian wetlands which were breeding habitats for anuran (Grant, Otis, & Koford, 2015). Zhang et al. (2017) use similar analyses in demonstrating that following the floods that result in the top fertile soils being carried away by the water; the dams reduce the chances of sedimentation flowing downstream thus affecting the vegetation downstream. The scholars are critical of the silt that has increased from 0.5 to 1% setting in the dams reduce the fertile soils moving down the river to the riparian for vegetation (Patterson, Struck & Murray, 2013). Dams’ construction has also resulted in the diversion of rivers thus affecting the natural flow of water needed to support the vegetation along such natural streams. Construction of dams requires a significant portion of lands resulting in deforestation and fertile or economically viable land to be used for the development (Graf, 2006). These issues occur in changing the taxonomy of the vegetation thus reducing indigenous plants and scrubs along the riparian.

Ecological Impacts

The biodiversity issues are increased due to the environmental destruction associated with construction of dams. Zeng and colleagues argue that the dams are acting as either hydropower generating sites or flood mitigating reservoirs lead to soil sediments from the agricultural and upstream water flowing into the dams. The silt from agrarian land settles in the dams and geochemical, chironomids, and diatoms elements settle in the floor of the dam thus leading to contamination due to the length of time taken for the water to flow out (Zeng et al., 2018). The connection between the Yangtze River and Futou Lake has depicted that most of these sediments are filtered in the dam’s floor thus reducing the significant elements such as AL, Fe to reach the lake whereas the chemical reactions result in increased macrophyte chironomids such as paratanytarsus flowing into the lake. The dams facilitate the increased growth of macrophytes against a phytoplankton-dominated and turbid ecosystem (Zeng et al., 2018). The high rates of macrophytes destabilize the aquatic state that needs eutrophication to be stabilized, but due to the increased pollution, oceanic countries are tampered with downstream and in the lake.

According to Yang et al. (2014), the diversion of rivers result in natural stream flows being changed upper the river thus leading to drying up of some of the tributaries and sediments that are necessary for seasonal fish travels. The sedimentation at the floor of the dams increases contamination of water downstream with the changes in water flow from one to another affecting the water that reaches the lakes or oceans. The sedimentation is expected to increase to 91% along the floor of the dams with the discharge to the sea declining to less than 90 Mt/yr (Yang et al., 2014) thus depicting the morphological impacts of the delta and coastal sea in the next decade.

Xing et al. (2017) are also critical on the increased erosion from the flood lands into the dam that has reduced the progradation rates downstream due to the water and silt accumulation in the dams. By using Mekong Basin as the place of the study, it was evident that the 66% of the entire delta shoreline is under erosion. The study demonstrated that erosion segments were apparent in the Ca Mau Peninsula eastern side and in the Gulf of Thailand. The results projected a failure in the dam and flood mitigation would be impossible because of the accelerated erosion on the shorelines (Fuladavand, 2015). These arguments are supported by Zhang et al. (2017) who depict that erosion in the Shashi Reach has increased since the construction of TGD with the width and depth ratio decreasing due to the increment in erosion and deposition of sediments into the TGD since 1980.

Human activities along the rivers have changed the flow of water along the rivers by the building of dams.

Aris et al. (2014) claim that the dams have contributed to the hydrological alternations along the floodplains though diverting the rivers and determining the amounts of water that flow downstream. The study depicted that during the precipitation seasons the large dams store most of the water to ensure that it runs at full strength thus limiting the water outflow whereas during the dry seasons the water is released to smaller dams which interrupt the hydrology of the river. The constant blocking of rivers as earlier depicted has allowed macrophytes population to increase and pollute the water (Chen et al., 2010). The Lancang River that has about six dams along it has seen its water volume decrease rapidly as the dams are reserved in the dams for hydropower generation or irrigation (Fan et al., 2015). In a study focusing on the dam constructed along the Yellow River depicted that the high sand concentration and the high flood lands led to the contamination of the water with mercury and other chemicals that killed most of the rare species downstream.

People Impact

Human’s selfishness may be a key driver to the escalating ecological and biodiversity problems, hence the need to understand the impacts of dams on the human’s socio-economic lives. The current growth in population and development have increased the food requirements, energy, and safety from floods in this unpredictable climate era. The dams have improved the energy production at reduced costs while also providing the water for irrigation of rice in most of the wetlands (Graham, 2006). However, construction of dams requires the humans to move from the construction areas thus leading to the displacement of native communities (Wang et al. 2013). Wang and his colleagues are adamant that the construction of the dams result in deforestation and changes in the fisheries resources due to the biodiversity and ecological factors thus communities dependent on fish lose the means to improve their living standards (Takesada, Manatunge & Herath, 2008). The increase of soil erosion following the deforestation increases the dangers of losing wealth through floods and drop of the primary source of food for their proteins (Bezuayehu, 2006). Submerged farmland and houses are some of the material, and non-material forms of losses likely to be incurred by these communities with relocation as later explained results in social inequalities.

Bawa and colleagues (2010) were adamant that the increased need of energy and the high carbon taxes had increased the demand for power production hence the commotion along the Malaysian and Indonesian borders with India and China fighting for the over 9 million tons of crude palm oil. The past war in 1962 depicted that the two countries are willing to do everything to win the power production lines thus focusing doom in the future with increased pollution and climate escalating within the two states. These conflicts will decrease the socioeconomic benefits that would result in investment in renewable energy with their carbon footprint among the highest in the world. The high carbon footprint and the international community fight to mitigate global warming have led to China investing in dam construction along the largest rivers which also flows into India (Kirchherr, Pohlner, & Charles, 2016). Such a move would escalate the conflict due to water and ecological impacts the power production along the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra.

The requirement of hundreds of hectares for the construction of the big dams is one of the reasons that influenced the social disintegration for most of the natives. Government’s projects have relocated the natives thus destabilizing their social ties and interaction for the mega projects (Scudder, 2012). The natives are forced to leave their fertile land to relocate to areas that may be lower in quality for the sake of the dams with Saddles et al. (2000) arguing that the relocation lands are most likely inferior to those by the river beds. Tullos et al. (2009) are emphatic in depicting that displacement compensations are disproportional thus resulting in increased wage gaps. The wealthy and private companies took advantage of the poor in such circumstances by using the water for recreation that decreases the flow of water and increased pollution (Kibler, & Tullos, 2013). The study depicted that political decision is based on the affluent support rather than the suitability and scientific reviews thus making it easier for the dams to be used equally to all the people (Baghel, & Nüsser, 2010). The EIA process for the TGD as addressed by Tullos and colleagues fails in projecting the future environmental sustainability thus expecting the poor to living conditions. Wang et al., (2013) among other studies on displacement depict that displaced people are 90% more likely to be worse-off following the relocation due to inadequate policies and biased wealth distribution (Shine & Yamaji, 2005).

Human activities and their innovations towards perfecting their resources is a vital propagator of energy consumption. The global warming state portrays that people must reduce their carbon emissions to escape extinction. However, the Bitcoin blockchain is becoming one of the most valued ways of the transaction. The miners use codes to make a deal valid and may spend more than 10-minutes to validate an operation. The extensive use of block chains codes to verify a single transaction accelerates the need for energy. Most companies in the Bitcoin mining business used cheap coal for their deals however the high carbon footprint led to the construction of dams to support the power intensive transactions. According to Digiconomist, the ratio of Visa transaction to that of Bitcoin transactions is 1:100,000 energy consumption. This rate depicts that the Bitcoin mining utilizes an average of 23 terawatt-hour per year which is more than 2700 megawatts/hour. The bitcoin is still in its infant stages, therefore, a projected increase in energy consumption to about 37 terawatt hour/hour (Tilt, 2014). The high energy consumption depicts that it will consume energy that would be consumed in most developing countries and increase the demand for electricity.

Disease

Malaria is still the leading cause of death in developing countries. The wetlands and stagnant surface water during the building process provide habitat for malaria vectors for example anopheles, Aedes, and culex as depicted by Ziegler and colleagues (2013). Tropical diseases such as malaria are just some of the disorders that dams’ construction contributes to in Asian and African countries. The pollution and contamination of the water released to the irrigation lands contain protozoa that increase the rates of diarrheal amongst most of the people living along the dams (Petney et al. 2011).

Although diarrhea and malaria are some of the most dangerous diseases, most of the population along the TGD and Asian riparian are likely to suffer from foodborne trematodes. The natives are always expected to eat undercooked fish, and their preference for freshwater fish that are likely to consume infected with Opisthorchis viverrini, Clonorchis Sinensis and O. felineus expose them to foodborne trematodes. According to Scripa (2007), over 600 million people are at risk of contacting the trematodes from fish. Since the cyprinoid fish is the staple diet, the poor sanitation and sewage in the upper streams provide the habitats for the parasites to lay eggs that when ingested contribute to liver flukes and cholangiocarcinoma (SoonAh, Jongsun & chulwon, 2011). These reviews are supported by Grundy et al. (2012) who describes the process of the parasites from the sewage and dams to the snails and fish, animals and lastly to the humans. McNaus et al. (2010) demonstrate that the people along the riparian lack the knowledge about the benefits of cooking fish and are unwilling to consume other types of fish due to taste and culture (Ziegler et al.. 2011). The inadequate information among these villagers result in sharing of uncooked fish, and inadequate disposal of wastes increases the spread of the ailments.

Alternatives and Solutions

The above studies depict the problems that dams’ construction have resulted in, but with the expected growth of energy requirements and need to determine the best way to manage flood, this section offers some of the proposed changes that can mitigate the environmental degradation. The flood lands along some of the most prominent rivers have been regarded as a flood threatened zones that must be planned wisely to ensure that economic and environmental losses are curbed (Speirs, 2016). However, dams have proven to cause ecological, biological, and socioeconomic losses. Water harvesting is one of the best ways to conserve and preserve water for use during the dry seasons (Faber, 1997). Although dams are useful in enhancing irrigation and water conservation, the decline in water quality such as in the Yellow River, calls for the formulation of better water conservation strategies.

In an analysis based on Mississippi flood in 1993, flood management policies such as integrating management of watershed, river, and floodplain through levees and gallows were proposed. The strategy aimed called for using the traditional means of non-structured basins that would not divert the streams from their natural flow and using modern prediction strategies to determine the rainfalls. The approach would involve integrating all the responsible teams and states to ensure better sewage system, using technology to predict the future among other coordinated flood management strategies effectively (Kabbes, 2007).

Natural calamities such as floods result in massive losses hence the need for an accurate and informative strategy to predict such events. The use of dams have reduced the need to relocate, but ecologists claim that relocation of some of the people is necessary to employ levees, river meanders, and flood proofing to cut the losses from floods (Moglen, 2005). The strategy proposes a reduction of runoff, riparian and in-river flood management and ensuring that people are separated from the threat. It also calls for flood insurance that will reduce the false belief of dams or flood management strategies (World Commission on Dams. 2001, McKinney, & Schoch, 2003). Lastly, destruction of old dams will improve the flood management and reduce the overall degradation with the silt-filled dams offering less protection from the floods.

The paper has illustrated that the rapid increment in energy consumption by the current generation has increased the need for dams’ construction for electricity production. However, the above issues discussed depict the need to change the mentality on electricity as a non-pollutant and invest more in renewable energy such as wind and solar power (Pottinger et al., 1999). The transition will reduce the costs and ecological degradation while ensuring reliable energy production.

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