Research Problem/Purpose
Healthcare is an essential consideration in the life of individuals, and there are strategies applied to improve healthcare. Individuals living with pain often use medications that are either prescribed or herbal. These medications aim to help in the reduction of pain and ensure that they achieve a better living. The research problem identified in the article is the challenge of attaining appropriateness when it comes to prescribing pharmaceutical opioids in managing chronic pain as well as non- cancer pain. The authors identify the appropriate use as a problem because the patients face a problematic use as well as have issues with dependence on the opioids. Therefore, the authors strived to explore the opioid use in pharmaceutical environment and reliance that patients have on these drugs ( Campbell, Nielsen, Larance, Bruno, Mattick, Hall, Lintzeris, N & Degenhardt, 2015) . The problem is easily identified in the article as it has been highlighted by the authors and presented in a simple language for understanding.
The researchers have placed the study problem within the context of existing knowledge. The rationale for such acceptance is that in healthcare, there have been researching studies on mechanisms to manage chronic pain among the patients. Opioids emerge as the best alternative, but there has been a misuse of the drugs since patients are keen on mitigating the pain and improving on their lives immediately. The gap is what the researchers identified, and they placed the research study problems within the existing knowledge that is present in the healthcare environment. Furthermore, the researchers understand the fact that chronic non-cancer pain is burdensome to the patients who are always in need of mechanisms that will alleviate the pain hence the reason for the research study problem.
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The research study will solve a problem that is relevant to nursing. The reason why I believe that is because the main issue identified is what nurses are trying to manage, but they are finding it a challenge. As patients are given a prescription to use opioids, they become dependent on the drugs that even after they have managed the pain, they still end up using the drugs which affect their lives. The patients consume high doses, which results in adverse effects on the patients’ lives and behaviors. It is a challenge in nursing which the research study aims at solving. Nurses will have in-depth knowledge regarding how they should prescribe opioids to patients suffering from non-chronic cancer pains so as to avoid overdosage. From the research study problem, the purpose of the research is to improve literature regarding prescriptions of the opioid to prevent overdosage ( Campbell et al., 2015) . Moreover, the study purposes of identifying proper management of non-chronic pain to avoid mental and physical health issues to the patients.
Review of the Literature
The concepts that were explored in the literature review include focusing on articles that had relevant information regarding opioid application and pain management. The authors focused on identifying the aims of the research before selecting the right materials that would be used in the research study. Among the purposes of the research that were identified in the literature review include a description of current pharmaceutical opioid consumption. Understanding the consumption brings about the information on dependence and abuse by the patients ( Baldacchino, Steele, Davey & Tolomeo, 2020) . Identification of the literature research articles that met these objectives helped in developing a useful literature review section for the study.
There is a mixture of articles that are used in the literature review section. For example, some items are old, while there are others that are recent. The most past article is dated 1998, while the newest material is dated 2014. The authors balanced between the old and new article sin finding the right information that they would use in making conclusions and findings for the research study ( Campbell et al., 2015) . The reason for using both the article is to understand what had been done in the previous years about opioid use in pain management and what is being done presently by the nursing professionals. The mechanism helps in identifying the gaps that are in place to develop an ongoing research study that will solve the problems in the nursing environment and the community at large.
Theoretical Framework
In the research study, there are no theoretical frameworks that are defined or related to the study. However, from the discussions that are raised in the article, the authors focus on nursing theories in explaining the opioid use in the management of pain among the patients. The best theoretical concept that suits the research study is the adaptive theory. Adaptation is identified as a continuous process that is also occurring, which results in the interaction and responses of the individuals in society. As the patients will be using the opioids, they will adapt to the effects of the drug hence the reason for the theory.
Variables/Hypotheses/Questions/Assumptions
The Independent variable is what the researcher can change, while the dependent variable is what is being tested by the researcher. In this study, the independent variable is the Pharmaceutical Opioid use while the dependent variable in patients with chronic pain. In the research study, there are no operational definitions of the variables. The author should have defined the non-cancer chronic pain and opioid to ensure the audience understands the variable, and they can easily apply these variables in making conclusions and decisions in the research study. Therefore, in definitions of the variables, the authors have to make sure that the information provided is concrete as well as measurable. The research question is also not stated in the article. However, from the title, the research question can be what the effect of opioid use and dependence among patients who are suffering from chronic pain is?
Methodology
The research method that was used by the authors is a quantitative research methodology. The researchers used a cohort study where they were investigating the people of Australia. Thus, it makes the process a quantitative research study. The reasoning that was applied in the research study is deductive. It involved discussing the overview of opioid application and dependence by the patients in a healthcare organization to determining the actual effects that are associated with overdose of opioid use in pain management. It was known that opioid use had outcomes among the patients, and the researchers move from these known pieces of information to the provision of accurate and correct information regarding the use of opioids by the patients.
The sampling mechanism that was used is a purposive sampling mechanism as the participants of the study were individuals across Australia who had been prescribed to use opioids for purposes of managing pain that is CNCP. The study population was individuals over the age of 18 years who had eligibility for filling in the questionnaire or telephone survey, and they were living in Australia. A sample size of 1,424 people was used in the research, and it helped in finding the conclusions of the study. The researcher used a probability sampling method as the selected population. Each member had a probability of being part of the research study ( Campbell et al., 2015) . The reliability and validity instruments used include the telephone survey and questionnaires and also the cohort design tools that the researchers used in the study. Ethical considerations were addressed in the research, and they include informing the participants of the research and seeking consent before involving the participants in the study. Further, only the participants who were 18 years and above were allowed to be part of the study. The research was also approved by relevant bodies that should be conducted.
Data Analysis
Computer software was used in the analysis. Thus, the tool that the researcher’s dependent on in the report is the STATA version 12.0. The results in the study were presented through graphical formats and discussion aspects. The researchers ensured that there were tabulations and graphical presentation of the data. They were further accompanied by a detailed discussion of the information to allow the audience to understand the information that had been extracted and relate to the data. The discussion presentation was also done in a simple language for the audience to read and understand the information ( Campbell et al., 2015) . One of the findings of the research study is that there is a higher opioid consumption, which results in an increasing level of aberrant patient behaviors. Examples of these behaviors include tempering and nonmedical use. It is an indication that shows there is a need for practitioner monitoring of opioid use after prescription.
Summary/Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations
The strengths of the study include the presence of substantial national samples that have adequate data. Further, there is a comprehensive collection of the actual consumption of the opioids and the over the counter medication. The strength of the study and helps in addressing cases of relying on the administrative data for purposes of medication use. The limitations of the study area on the issue of self-report that raise questions regarding desirability and reliability aspects. It indicates that there is biasness in the data collection process. In terms of findings, the researcher can generalize other populations such as the populations who are not using opioids for pain management ( Malik & Joseph, 2019) . The conclusions of the study are focused on patients using opioids, and thus a control population can be generalized from the process. The results and conclusions are instrumental in the nursing environment as they dictate the procedures the nurse and clinicians should follow when prescribing opioid use for pain management. For example, through the findings, patients have to be monitored to avoid an overdose of opioid use.
References
Malik, T., & Joseph, A. A. (2019). Analgesic Response to Opioids in Patients with Addiction. In Pain (pp. 1149-1152). Springer, Cham.
Baldacchino, A., Steele, D., Davey, F., & Tolomeo, S. (2020). Cognitive consequences of opioid use. In Cognition and Addiction (pp. 179-198). Academic Press.
Campbell, G., Nielsen, S., Larance, B., Bruno, R., Mattick, R., Hall, W., Lintzeris, N., ... Degenhardt, L. (January 01, 2015). Pharmaceutical Opioid Use and Dependence among People Living with Chronic Pain: Associations Observed within the Pain and Opioids in Treatment (POINT) Cohort. Pain Medicine, 16, 9, 1745-1758.
