Domestic violence is one of the pressing global issues transcending national boundaries as well as racial, cultural, class, and socio-economic distinctions. Geographically, it is not widely dispersed, though its incidence makes it an accepted and typical behavior. At a fundamental level, domestic violence can be understood as the power one adult in a relationship uses to control the other. It is the formation of fear and control in a relationship through the use of violence and other kinds of abuse (Manjoo, 2011). Various forms of abuse such as physiological abuse, financial abuse, physical, and sexual assault may constitute domestic violence (Kaur & Garg, 2008). Based on the frequency of such acts, domestic violence may be chronic or occasional.
Men are also victims of domestic violence. Indeed, while the majority of domestic violence victims are women, men may also suffer from such abuse (Hines & Douglas, 2008). In the United States, it is reported that at least 85% of violence experienced by women constitutes domestic violence while this figure stands at only 3% for men (Kaur & Garg, 2008). In many ways, therefore, domestic violence refers to violence against women. The WHO reports that 15% to 71% of women in the world experienced sexual or physical violence or both from an intimate partner. In the United States, not only are women more likely to suffer from domestic violence but they are also more likely to endure the most serious cases of assault. Thus, the Department of Health notes that women are much more likely than men to endure grave cases of battering that result in death. For instance, in 1996 alone, there were 1,800 murders in the country attributed to intimate partners with nearly 75% of the victims being women. The Center for Disease Control estimates that over three women are murdered by their spouses or sexual partners every day and that intimate partners perpetrate approximately 33.3% of women murders. Between 1981 and 1998, domestic violence fatalities were in excess of 300,000 (Manjoo, 2011).
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Domestic violence in the United States is, therefore, not a novel phenomenon. Government sources estimate that at least one-third of women will experience an instance of physical assault by the intimate partner in the course of adulthood (Manjoo, 2011). This statistic may, however, significantly underestimate the incidence of domestic violence in the country since feelings of fear and shame prevent women from reporting such instances. It is worth noting that domestic violence has historically been characterized as a family or private matter, therefore, adding to its under-reporting. The frequency of domestic violence is worth underscoring since data indicates it cuts across lines of immigration status, race, and gender quite differently. African Americans, Latinos, Alaska natives, and American Indians of the poor background are more likely to experience domestic violence. There is, in fact, a close correlation between poverty and domestic violence in the United States (Nancy & Ann, 1996). Despite these categories being most in need of domestic violence services from the government, the numbers indicate they are chronically underserved. This calls for more effective government action in responding to familial, social, and financial isolation underwent by immigrant and minority women. Nationally, black women are more likely to report instances of domestic violence (67%) than fellow white women (50%), white men (45%), and black men (48%).
The exact causes of domestic violence remains a hotly debated and divisive issue with various theories being proffered by researchers. Data, however, indicates that women are at considerable risk of violence when their partner experience financial strain and job instability, affirming the noted correlation between domestic violence and poverty. Studies also indicate that abuse is common among unemployed and mostly young urban residents- a huge number of whom are immigrants and racial minorities. A sizable number of previously homeless women once suffered domestic violence, and more than 50% of women receiving one or the other form of public assistance were once domestic violence victims (Manjoo, 2011). Although the inadequacy of accurate data on the intersections of gender and race in populations benefitting from public assistance in the US such as housing still persists, statistics make it clear that racial minorities constitute the preponderance of homeless people and that most women benefitting from public assistance programs are mostly racial minorities.
Therefore, domestic violence can be attributed to a combination of age, poverty, residence, employment status, and social position and not culture or race per se. Nevertheless, race remains a salient factor because of its inextricable and intricate connections with the aforementioned factors. In one specific instance of Alaska Native Women and American Indian, race remained a salient feature. Unlike other minority groups in the country, most Alaskan and American Indian women reported instances of intimate partner violence by a non-native (Manjoo, 2011). In most instances, these women confront unique challenges to accessing justice since determining which government entity-tribal, state or federal- is responsible for the prosecution of crimes on Indian lands is based on the race of the victim or perpetrator.
Besides these, more contested factors have been related to domestic violence. From an evolutionary perspective, it is theorized that males with difficulty obtaining sexual partners are likely to resort to rape or sexual coercion. These assertions are normally based on extensive evidence in animals of forced mating. The evolutionary theory perspective also attributes sexual jealousy to the desire of assuring the paternity of the offspring. Numerous case histories retrieved from battered women attest to the extreme sexual jealousy exhibited by their batterers (Nancy & Ann, 1996). Physiological and Neurophysiological perspectives, on the other hand, relate violence and aggression displayed by perpetrators of sexual violence to the working of steroid hormones like testosterone and the functioning of neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin as well as to neurophysiological abnormalities and brain dysfunctions that tamper with language processing and cognition (Nancy & Ann, 1996). Other studies assert the role of drug and substance abuse as a key determinant of domestic violence just like violence in general. While the relationship between partner violence and alcohol consumption may be spurious, the relationship of men drinking and partner violence is evident even after controlling for relevant variables like marital satisfaction, sociodemographic factors, and hostility.
In recent years, public attitude towards domestic violence and more so state intervention in such matters has changed dramatically. The Me Too Movement today embodies this change with respect to sexual assault. As a result, local, state, and federal legislation have been introduced as remedies, and in numerous instances, police agencies have developed structure and policies meant to address the domestic violence epidemic. Thanks to Supreme Court rulings, federal government involvement remains significantly restricted and, therefore, local and state courts have taken the lead (Manjoo, 2011) . Local and state officials are expected to apply civil protection orders, criminal prosecutions , and mandatory arrest policies to guarantee the safety of domestic violence victims.
In response to the Supreme Court’s 1992 recognition that four million American women undergo domestic violence, the federal government responded with the passage of Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) in 1994, which was later reauthorized in 2000, 2005 and 2013. The passage of the act was undeniably a bellwether occasion in the country’s fight against domestic violence as it was the most comprehensive legislation on the matter. It sought to expand the juridical tools in the domestic violence fight through the provision of $1.6 Billion that was directed towards investigation and prosecution of violence against women, permitted civil redress in cases prosecutors left unprosecuted, and imposed mandatory and automatic restitution on those convicted. The act further criminalized domestic violence across state lines, effectively making such crimes federal offenses. In many ways, the act attempted to offer abused women with federal remedies in the face of failures by state and local authorities to address gender-based violence adequately (Manjoo, 2011) . In fact, before and after the Act’s passage, various officials and agencies have underscored the grievousness and heavy toll domestic violence has inflicted on the country. For instance, President Bush noted in 2000 that over 700,000 instances of domestic violence were reported annually, many more went unreported, and nearly 57,000 were murdered by their partner in the past quarter-century.
While VAMA has attained a lot more so through the Office on Violence Against Women and empowerment of various agencies like the police and prosecutors, performance cannot be termed as impressive. For instance, between 2005 and 2007, when the Bush administration had just reauthorized the act, the National Crime Victimization Survey reported a 42% increase in domestic violence and 25% increase in sexual violence with women making up a majority of the victims (Manjoo, 2011).
Addressing domestic violence in the United States is indeed an urgent task given the cost of human life, the economy, and general well-being (Nancy & Ann, 1996) . This will demand a multidimensional approach that first entails encouraging women to report incidents of abuse. At the enforcement level, states and local authorities need to play a pro-active role to ensure expeditious investigation and prosecution. At the legislative level, VAWA needs to be reinforced to make it more effective. In particular, the act must offer federal court remedies for victims and ensure participation by all local and state authorities more so in monitoring progress made. It also must ensure adequate funding for services necessary to ensure victim safety. With respect to funding, there is also a need to ensure partner organizations involved in the fight against domestic violence have adequate incentives to apply for financing offered by the act and the resources are properly utilized. Above all, the factors related to domestic violence such as poverty, marginalization, and deprivation of minorities need to be resolved.
References
Hines, D., & Douglas, E. (2008). Women's Use of Intimate Partner Violence against Men: Prevalence, Implications, and Consequences. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 18 (6), 572-586.
Kaur, R., & Garg, S. (2008). Addressing Domestic Violence Against Women: An Unfinished Agenda. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 33 (2), 73-76.
Manjoo, R. (2011). Domestic Violence in the United States: a Preliminary Report. United Nations Human Rights Council .
Nancy, C., & Ann, B. (1996). Causes and Consequences of Violence Against Women. In Understanding Violence Against Women (p. 49). Washington DC: National Academy of Sciences.
