When Europeans first arrived in North America, many of the Native Americans were friendly to them and enjoyed the trading relationship, where they exchanged furs for guns, knives, and other manufactured products. However, the trading relations worsened when the Europeans handled the Native Americans unfairly. As the Europeans continued to invade the Natives territories, conflict arose concerning the land use and land ownership ideas. The Native Americans believed in communal land ownership while Europeans had a belief of individual land ownership and claimed it for themselves. As such, the Europeans intended to use violence to enforce its colonization rule on the indigenous people. As a result, some native population resisted while others collaborated with the Europeans to achieve their objective.
On this background, this paper will analyze the different responses of specific native populations to European arrival in North America. The paper will focus on three indigenous groups; the Iroquois confederation, Wampanoag confederation, and Powhatan confederation. Finally, a conclusion based on the observation of the discussion.
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The Iroquois Confederation
This is a group of Native Americans formed in pre-colonial and consist of six group which include Mohawk, Cayuga, Oneida, Seneca, Onondaga, and Tuscaroras. The Confederacy was initially established to prevent conflict between the groups and to retain power as well in the upstate New York 1 . During the colonial period, the Iroquois was a power to be reckoned with at the start of the expansion of the European into North America. However, they were threatened by the alliances of Hurons, Algonquins, and Montagnais who joined to support the French. As such, the Iroquois engaged in Beaver Wars, which was a series of long-decades wars against the French, their Huron supporters, and other bordering tribes such as the Erie, Susquehannock, and Petun. The Iroquois used the war as a way to try and control the profitable fur trade to retain trade with the Europeans. This European trade relationship was vital to the Iroquois for them to access guns which they were dependent on 2 .
In furtherance of the power and prosperity of Iroquois, they engaged in series of long wars and battles with the local tribes to secure the trading of fur in the area. Before the 1701 French peace treaty, the Iroquois greatly fought the French with the help of Dutch as an ally because of the guns they supplied to the five tribes. After the peace treaty of 1701 with the French, the Iroquois mainly remained neutral. However, during the Spanish succession war, they were still engaged in strategic attacks against the French. Later, the Iroquois collaborated with the British against French and the Algonquians during the theatre of seven years’ war of North America, to gain favors after the battle. The British won the war, and their government, in 1763 issued a royal proclamation, which forbidden the white settlement past the Appalachian Mountains. The royal proclamation is associated with historians as one primary reason for the revolution of America 3 .
Powhatan Confederation
Powhatan was a leader of the indigenous Americans who lived around Jamestown and formed a confederacy of more than 30 Algonquian tribes residing in close to 200 villages. Before the arrival of the English, Spanish explorers had attempted to create settlement along the Chesapeake in Virginia and went to war with the natives. Because of this reason, Powhatan’s confederacy started a war with the English. For instance, they attacked an English ship before it could reach Jamestown. Although suspicious, Powhatan knew he had nothing to fear since the English settlers searched for gold rather than necessities provision. He, therefore, agreed to trade with the colonists 4 .
Later, when more colonists arrived, they started to demand more food and forced the Indians to provide for them, which made Powhatan refuse the trade. Therefore, Powhatan planned a raid in 1607 where Captain Smith, the leadership of the colony was captured and brought to Powhatan. He ordered for Captain Smith to be killed but his daughter, Pocahontas, threw herself on Smith, which is believed to be Powhatan’s way of execution to get good relations with the English and to end raids on his confederation 5 . As a result, Powhatan continued trading with the English though both sides were suspicious of each other. The trading came to an end when Powhatan refused in 1609, which brought starvation to the colonists, and the colonists decided to raid the natives. Powhatan confederation in return used a "hit and run" attack on the colonists.
Powhatan later renewed his attacks when a new team of colonists arrived the Chesapeake Bay. The colonists captured his daughter as a way to force Powhatan to agree to their demands. In return, he unwillingly agreed to sign a treaty to give everything the colonists wanted. Powhatan later died in 1618, and his brother Opechancanough became the leader of Indian (Powhatan) confederation 6 .
Wampanoag Confederation
Wampanoag is one of the indigenous Americans who helped Pilgrims survive at Plymouth plantations, which is among the earliest English settlement in North America. The help came through Squanto, who was one of the Wampanoag, the only survivor of Wampanoag tribe after all the members died of diseases when he was released from slavery 7 . When the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth, they needed help since most of them died in winter. Squanto knew their customs and languages, which he learned during his captivity and he wanted to help the pilgrims. Therefore, he taught the Pilgrims how to catch fish, plant corn, where to get berries and nuts, and how to prepare for winter. Additionally, he assisted the Pilgrims how to communicate with the indigenous Americans through translation, which helped to initiate peace agreements between colonists and the natives. The Pilgrims were happy to have him as a friend, and he continues to stay and offer them help in many ways. Squanto finally succumbed to a disease in 1622 8 .
Conclusion
The arrival of the Europeans (English) in North America triggered different reactions from the Native Americans who lived there. Some tribes/populations supported them while others resisted because they of the oppression they received from the Europeans while others wanted to maintain power among the native tribes. In the end, most of them were defeated and gave in to the Europeans who have now settled in the present day the USA.
Bibliography
Barr, Daniel P. Unconquered: The Iroquois League at War in Colonial America . Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006.
Bleiweis, Sam. “The Downfall of the Iroquois”. Emory Endeavors in History, 2013.
Bushnell, David. "The Treatment of the Indians in Plymouth Colony." New England Quarterly (1953): 193-218.
Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures . U of Nebraska Press, 2000.
1 Bleiweis, Sam. “The Downfall of the Iroquois”. Emory Endeavors in History, 2013.
2 Barr, Daniel P. Unconquered: The Iroquois League at War in Colonial America . Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006.
3 Barr, Daniel P. Unconquered: The Iroquois League at War in Colonial America . Ibid.
4 Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures . U of Nebraska Press, 2000.
5 Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures . Ibid.
6 Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures . U of Nebraska Press, 2000.
7 Bushnell, David. "The Treatment of the Indians in Plymouth Colony." New England Quarterly (1953): 193-218.
8 Bushnell, David. "The Treatment of the Indians in Plymouth Colony." Ibid .
