Mathematics is “the science of structure, order, and relation that has evolved from the elemental practices of counting, measuring, and describing the shapes of objects” (Gray, et al., 2016). This paper is aimed at discussing the subject with the aid of several articles. It will also expound on the history of Europe.
History of Mathematics
Since the seventeenth century, mathematics has been an essential adjunct to technology and physical sciences. In the recent times, the subject has assumed similar roles in quantitative aspects of life sciences. Over the years, mathematics has evolved to something more than basic counting. The systems of mathematics are composed of combined sets of theorems and axioms. The theorems can be deduced logically from the axioms. Thus, mathematics has grown exponentially since the fifteenth century. Historical accounts show that since the fifteenth to the twentieth century, considerable progress in mathematics has happened in North America and Europe (Gray et al., 2016; Katz, 2014).
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It is supposed that mathematics originated from ancient Greek. The earlier traditions are represented in the Rhind Papyrus which was edited for the first time in 1877 ( Smith, 1958) . The “impression gave way to a very different view as Orientalists succeeded in deciphering and interpreting the technical materials from ancient Mesopotamia” (Gray et al., 2016). In the 3000 BC, Egypt introduced writing which led to the formation of “special class of literate professionals, the scribes” (Gray et al., 2016). The scribes undertook all duties of public service using their writing capabilities . These included accounting taxes, keeping records, and public works management. Many young people were admitted to schools to learn scribal skills that also included the basic mathematics. The Egyptians expressed numbers in terms of decimal schemes like the Romans. Egyptian mathematics made a lasting legacy on the mathematics of the Greeks between sixth and fourth centuries BC. Due to limited documentation, the significance of the effect can only be speculated . For instance, the report portraying Thales measuring the heights of pyramids is only one aspect of the numerous accounts where Greek professionals learned from Egyptians. This fact is confirmed by Plato and Herodotus who employed Egyptian practices in the application and teaching of the mathematics (Gray at al., 2016; Smith, 1958 ).
A God of Math and Order
The quest to understand mathematics began when Christian thinkers applied the sovereignty of God to the natural realms in a novel way. They asserted that God designed nature in a mathematical way. Later on, concerns arose driven by Aristotelian notions that “ natural entities possessed intrinsic drives” ( Boyer & Merzbach, 2011; Harrison, 2002). Nature was then stripped of its divinity and on its place posited mechanical processes. For instance, the ingenuity of Newton, according to Alexander Pope, was founded in the discovery of laws that were previously hidden . It is also believed that natural laws, since the middle ages, were moral rules established by God. Some of these rules include “injunction against murder recognized by all cultures” (Harrison, 2002).
Another notable event was the growth of the notion of the existence of physical laws, which were typically laws of nature. According to Philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), “God alone is the author of all motions in the world” (Harrison, 2002). This was a deep-seated observation against the then popular notions. The Philosopher further argued that natural laws are eternal and unchanging. He argued that nature’s constancy was founded on God’s immutability. The idea of immutability and eternal endurance, essential to scientific progress, was directly connected to mathematics. One of the distinctive features of science is its consistent application of mathematical logic. However, the concept emerged from theology (Harrison, 2002).
The medieval thinkers considered the marriage of natural science and mathematics a futile undertaking. They believed that mathematics was a product of human thinking and ingenuity. They thought that mathematics could not be used to offer an accurate explanation of reality. They believed the explanations could be useful but not right . An example of the application was in astronomy where mathematics was used to provide useful fictions. These issues led Galileo to the Inquisition , insisting that Copernicus’ system was a useful mathematical description. Mathematics could, however, provide an exact description of reality and nature if it were more than mere human thinking. Harrison (2002) concludes that in theology and nature , everything ran according to the immutability of God’s laws. He also cites that the development of mathematics is underpinned in some of its central assumptions of theology.
History of Europe
The term Europe is ambiguous than any other geographic expressions. For instance, to outsiders, the British Isles seem clearly part of Europe. However, to Britons and some Irish, ‘Europe’ mainly refers to continental Europe” (Herrin, et al., 2015). Towards the south, Europe borders the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. However, the Roman Empire referred to it as an inland sea. Until today, questions remain as to whether Malta and Cyprus are European Islands. The uncertainty is more prominent in the eastern regions where the natural frontiers are more elusive. The issues of boundaries have more than geographical significance (Herrin et al., 2015).
After the Second World War, the concept of Europe arose. Majorly, the concept was birthed to promote the Unity of the continent. Initially, the idea was confined in Western Europe but later reached out to the east and central regions. In the European regions, unity is an ancient ideal which was prefigured by Rome. Further, Adolf Hitler and Napoleon Bonaparte were on a quest to unite Europe by conquering all regions. However, the plans never succeeded until the end of Second World War when the statesmen in Europe longed for ways to united Europe peaceful and equally. The chief motives of their undertaking included prevention of wars, the dominance of powers by one state, and civilization of international cooperation (Herrin et al., 2015 ; Jones, 2003). The quest was grounded in the fact that Europeans have many shared values than what differentiates them. Western Europe, for example, has numerous geographical features that include mountains, rivers, and creeks. It has a high population, with multiple linguistic groups. Additionally, the people are either “Nordic, Alpine or Celtic, and Mediterranean types…the bulk of their languages classified as either Romance or Germanic” (Herrin, et al., 2015) . There are great amounts of diversity amongst the European people, most of which is fueled by their combative nature. For instance, although the climate is favorable for various economic activities, many areas have been battlefields in the past. Informed by this, Herrin et al. (2015) cite that many cities in Europe have been built with bones .
Despite the wars that have prevalent over the years, Europeans have been at the forefront of civilization ( Jones, 2003). Many explorers, navigators, and colonists originated from Europe and created an impact through their values in every country they set foot. Moreover, it was Europeans who exported militarization and weaponry. During the twentieth century, Europe almost destroyed itself. The First World War caused eight million deaths while the Second World War caused eighteen million deaths in battle, and organized genocides. The war had lasting impacts on the people, both physically and psychologically. Five years post end of the war, several leaders in Europe began advocating for its unity. Overall, therefore, “Europe’s diversity thus helped foster its impulse to unite” (Herrin, et al., 2015; Judt, 2006) .
References
Boyer, C. B., & Merzbach, U. C. (2011). A history of mathematics . John Wiley & Sons.
Gray, J.J., Knorr, W.R., Berggren, J.L., Fraser, C.G., & Folkerts, M. (2016). Mathematics. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/mathematics
Harrison, P. (2002). A God of Math & Order. Christian History , 21 (4), 18-20.
Herrin, J.E., Weinstein, D., Parker, N.G., Salmon J.H., Herlihy, D., Champion T.C., … Mayne, R.J. (2015). History of Europe . In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe
Jones, E. (2003). The European miracle: environments, economies and geopolitics in the history of Europe and Asia . Cambridge University Press.
Judt, T. (2006). Postwar: A history of Europe since 1945. Penguin.
Katz, V. J. (2014). History of mathematics . Pearson.
Smith, D. E. (1958). History of mathematics (Vol. 1). Courier Corporation.
