Hohokam was a society located in the North American Southwest. Currently, the places the Hohokam lived are now part of Arizona and Sonora, Mexico. The Hohokam are primarily known for their culture (Hohokam culture) and architecture. However, they also practiced long-distance trade. This paper will explore the life of people in Sycamore Creek area. Archaeological research done in this area has revealed much about the communities that lived here. For the purposes of clarity, this paper focuses on a few major themes and it emphasizes data obtained from the Sycamore Creek-State Route 87 Archaeological Project. Specific themes of discussion include (a) Trade and Exchange Network; (b) Social Inequality; (c) Symbols; and (d) Architecture.
Theme 1: Trade and Exchange Networks
The Hohokam were known for long-distance trade and interaction with (or at least influences) from) northwest Mexico. Using the data provided, discuss evidence for long-distance trade and how this might be recognized archaeologically. What material(s) show evidence of trade? Where do these appear to be coming from? What do you think was traded in the opposite direction? Does it appear that the people of the Sycamore Creek area have some kind of control over long-distance trade, perhaps suggesting some kind of political structure that might be part of this?
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The Hohokam were known for long-distance trade as well as for interaction with northwest Mexico. The Hohokam engaged in various cultural activities, which resulted in what is termed as a Hohokam culture. More to this is that engaged in trade, including long-distance trade. They traded with other communities living in Sycamore Creek areas and their neighbours, North Hohokam, South Hohokam, and other neighbouring regions.
Evidence for long-distance trade includes turquoise, shells from the Gulf of California, as well as parrot bones from Central Mexico (Southwest “Culture Areas,” Slide 27). These evidences may be recognized archaeologically through excavations. Many materials were traded in the Sycamore Creek areas. Some of the material that shows evidence of the trade in the Sycamore Creek area are macaws, shells, worked stoned, pottery, cotton/textiles, pottery styles, turquoise, obsidian, salt, corn, dessert foods, ground stone, and copper (Southwest “Culture Areas,” Slide 27). Most of these trade goods came from Mexico. Some of the trade goods that came from Mexico are copper bells, mosaic artworks, stone mirrors, exotic birds, such as macaws. Shells, cotton/textiles, turquoise, obsidian, salt, corn, and ground stones were traded in the opposite direction.
The people of Sycamore Creek area constructed ball courts, which were used as exchange points (Southwest “Culture Areas,” Slide 31). The ball courts also functioned as general ritual areas. The people of Sycamore Creek areas had some kind of control over long-distance trade. In trade, the Hohokam operated as a regional system. The enigmatic ball courts were loci of cyclical marketplaces that moved the system.
Theme 2: Social Inequality
Numerous cremations are present in the Sycamore Creek project. Do you see evidence for patterning in these cremations? Are particular individuals more or less likely to be cremated and interred in a particular fashion? Do grave inclusions suggest anything about the individuals? Do grave inclusions indicate anything about society, such as whether or not social status was ascribed?
Hohokam burial varied over time, but cremation was a defining cultural characteristic of the Hohokam Core. In other words, the primary form of treatment of the dead was cremation. In the Sycamore Creek project, there seems to be a pattern in the cremations. Evidence which shows patterning in these cremations include the following: (I) cemeteries isolated from, but adjacent to, house clusters; (II) separate crematoria; (III) pit, trench, and urn cremations; (IV) a few extended inhumations; (V) cremations of the deceased in personal clothing and ornaments; and (VI) possible post-cremation reworking of the remains as well as the division of the cremated remains into multiple lots for separate burial (Peregrine & Ember, 2001).
Additionally, there is a difference in grave goods between burial styles. Typically, cremations tend to have more grave goods or vessels than inhumations. More to this is that adult female burials included Gila Plain globular (337-7) and a Sacaton Red-on-buff hemispherical bowl, while cremated adult males were buried with more bone awls/hairpins and more projectile points (Santa Cruz Red-on-buff and Gila Plain sherds) (Sycamore Creek-SR87 Project Figures, Feature No. 15.01 & 16.02). In some areas within Sycamore Creek areas, some cremations were gender-linked, differ between the inhumation and cremation burials. For example, cremation was associated with females, but with polychrome, it appears that it was associated with inhumed males. Grave inclusions or grave goods are some of the most vital indicators of the previous relationships of an individual. This is to say the amount of these goods is an indication of social status ascribed to the individual.
Theme 3: Symbols
A number of petroglyph panels were encountered in the Round Valley area during the Sycamore Creek project. Do these appear to demonstrate symbolism? If so, what might kind(s) of symbols do you think these represent? Does the location of these petroglyphs suggest that they had a specific function within local society?
A petroglyph is an image created by removing part of a rock surface. In other words, it is a form of rock art. Petroglyph can be created in many ways. The most common ways of making petroglyph panels are by picking, carving, or abrading. A series of petroglyphs were encountered in the Round Valley area of the Sycamore Creek project. More specifically, the petroglyphs were encountered at the Round Valley site (AZ U:3:341), located between the Screwtail Hill area to the north and the Camp Creek area. For instance, in Sutherland, there are more than 600 petroglyph panels (Southwest “Culture Areas,” Slide 35).
Depending on the location, age, and subject matter, petroglyphs that were encountered in the Round Valley area appear to demonstrate symbolism. Some petroglyphs seem to depict real events whilst many are apparently entirely abstract. More to this is that some theories hold that some petroglyphs were used to transmit information, while other theories ascribe them a religious or ceremonial purpose. There are different types of petroglyph panels, such as petroglyph maps. Petroglyph maps may be used to symbolize phenomenon or present different information. For instance, they may reflect something of Hokoham belief system (Southwest “Culture Areas,” Slide 36). More to this is that they may be used as representations of flowers, butterflies, birds, imagery characteristic of a spiritual landscape known as the Flower World (Southwest “Culture Areas,” Slide 35). For instance, it may show trails, distances travelled, and local terrain in the forms of contours, rivers, landforms, and other geographical features. Some petroglyph panels encountered in the Round Valley area may have deep cultural and religious significance for the societies that lived there in the past. Some petroglyphs are thought to represent symbolic or ritual language.
Depending on the location, petroglyph panels were used to demonstrate specific function within local society. When located near ritual areas, they may indicate the ritual acts and cultural behaviours of the local community. Petroglyph panels located on routes, such as those used by long-distance traders, can be used to indicate transmit information, show trails, symbols communicating time, distances travelled, and the local terrain.
Theme 4: Architecture
A variety of houses and other structures are present in this study. What kind(s) of structures were present? Is there temporal and/or spatial patterning in these, such as changes through time or space in structure size, shape, location, or frequency? Of the structures included in these data, do any appear to be of greater social importance (size, location, etc.) than any others, perhaps suggesting a place of social power? Why or why not?
In the study, a variety of houses and other structures were present. Some of the structure that was present in the study are pithouses, masonry structures, ceramic artefacts, lithic artefacts, and other forms of artefacts (Interpretation Data, Page 3). Typically, the masonry structures were made from unshaped, irregular blocks and slabs of granite. The houses or masonry structures were of different varieties –habitation structures and a linear retaining wall. The structures also varied in shape and size. Some were rectangular while others were semi-rectangular. With regard to ceramic artefacts, different types of ceramic artefacts were encountered, which include Hohokam buffwear, Cibola white wear, Little Colorado white wear, Tusayan White wear, and Roosevelt Red wear (Interpretation Data, Page 5). One of the lithic artefacts that were discovered in the study is flaked stones artefacts. Apart from masonry structures, ceramic artefacts, and lithic artefacts, other forms of artefacts were discovered in the study. These artefacts include single stone palette and a single glycymeris sp. shell bracelet.
Hohokam architecture is mainly comprised of squared and rectangular pithouses. Individual residential structures that were excavated were mainly made of plastered or compacted floors that covered 12 m 2 (Interpretation Data, Page 5). From the study, it is highly likely that families may have controlled or "owned" land. Most of the structures were characterized by temporal and spatial patterning. There was evidence for lineage residences. This can be attributed to overlapping pithouses, which are as a result of the same family group building in the same place over long periods of time (Southwest “Culture Areas,” Slide 12). For instance, the 1985 excavations at the Tangue Verde Wash site showed evidence for lineage residence (Southwest “Culture Areas,” Slide 12). More to this is that the excavation revealed a multigenerational household of seven pithouses arranged around a common open courtyard. Therefore, there is a temporal and special pattering in the structures encountered in the study.
Of the structures included in the data, there are some that appear to be of greater social importance. For instance, the ones build in Northern Hohokam seem to be of greater social importance. Typically, Hohokam villages were built near water and arable land. Northern Hohokam was characterized by largest settlements and canal systems. This is due to the presence of the Salt and Gilt rivers.
Conclusion
From the archaeological report, it can be argued that the Hohokam reached an apex of socioeconomic development in the 15 th century. Hallmarks of the Hohokam tradition included different forms of artefacts, such as red-on buff potter and architectural buildings, including ball courts and masonry structures. The Hohokam also practiced long-distance trade. Evidence for long-distance trade includes turquoise, shells from the Gulf of California, as well as parrot bones from Central Mexico. The Hohokam operated as a regional system and thus had some control over long-distance trade. In the Hohokm culture, the primary form of treatment of the dead was cremation. From the archaeological report, the illustrations and data showed a pattern in these cremations.
References
Sycamore Creek Project Data.
Mitchell, D., & Brunson-Hadley, J. (2001). Ancient burial practices in the American Southwest: Archaeology, Physical Anthropology, and Native American Perspectives. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press.
Peregrine, P., & Ember, M. (2001). Encyclopaedia of prehistory: Volume 6: North America. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
