Theoretical Shift in Religious Studies

David Hume’s Natural History 

Religion arises from the fact that humanity is anxious and uncertain about the future. No one knows what the future holds, and hence man tries to create an institution of unseen, unknown powers to govern their destinies. Hume explains that adversaries of the world that are inevitable, such as vengeance, severity, cruelty and malice compel humanity to be a religionist in a bid to escape them. The panic that is in the mind while experiencing life problem leads to the thought of having a deity or a divine being who will intercept the problems. Hume further criticizes the notion of praise and eulogizing , which is a trait in almost all religions. He considers both praise and eulogy a result of the very same fears that give birth to the art of spirituality and belief in deities. The divinity in religious practice is given so much praise, all virtue and excellence that are attributed to them to levels of exaggerations. Everything that happens on earth is connected with the divine being even without questioning phenomena. 

Hume argues that religion presents a contradiction in the principles of human nature. Natural fears bestow the notion of a satanic and malicious divinity, while people propensity to praise leads to the acknowledgment of an extraordinary divinity. He further adds that these opposing principles influence human beings understanding. Both fear and hope are aspects of religion because they are emotions that at a particular time in life agitate the mind. Each of these emotions is a precursor for a species of divinity, suitable to the emotion. Hume argues that when humankind is in a cheerful mood, they are suited to an array of activities such as entertainment, business, etc. and at this time they do not think about religion. When human beings are sad and dejected, they go back into the terror of the invisible world to seek answers. In this, he explains that terror and fear are the sources of religion, and if they didn't exist, then probably there would be no religion. Hume finishes by stating that it is absurd and inconsistence to believe that a deity or a divinity has got human passion, and in any case, they possess a given passion; then they can also hold other forms of emotions. 

Max Weber’s History 

Max Weber tries to inter-relate the association between religion and socio-economic activities. In the Weber thesis, he attempts to explain the religious beliefs by reducing it to something different, something that is more basic and fundamental, of which he and others were a mere expression or effect. Just like many other philosophers, his ideas were in conformity when he talked about cause and effect. In the economic revolution experienced in Europe, religious beliefs and attitudes were the reasons while the social and economic changes amounted to the effect. In a nutshell, Weber great work came to be known because he tried to connect the influence of religion on social and economic policies across Europe. To him, a religion which is the act of believing was the drive behind the initiation of various socio-economic growths at that particular time. 

Weber also explores on the principle of asceticism. Asceticism is the acceptance of the role that God has irretrievably assigned to human beings. The usefulness of calling, he says are primarily measured regarding morals, which is how it benefits the community. If God sees a potential in someone, then the person must do it with utmost passion. He further adds that man is an entrusted trustee of the good things given to him by God. He is, therefore, accountable for all the things given to him, and these things should only serve the will of God. Weber argues that religion affects a group or an individual in all kinds of manner, but if people claim to be acting on religious grounds, their perspective on religious grounds should be first analyzed . Weber also praises religion for shaping an individual's image in the world, and this can, in turn, change people's interest and how they decide to solve problems. 

Weber states that religion enables people to understand theodicy-why God allows evil to occur. People need to figure out why good and bad exists in equal measure. Religion tries to answer this question with the assurance of salvation, a form of motivation. Therefore, since capitalism is a form of motivation, Weber concluded that religion was implicated in the start of capitalism. 

Evans-Pritchard Theory 

Evans argument was basically in the field of primitive religion. He argued against the primitive religious theories that had prevailed during his time. He added that those who believed and those who didn't understand approached religious studies broadly in two distinct ways. Those who did not believe in religion came up with sociological, biological and psychological ways of explaining religious experience as the illusion. Believers explained religion as a reality and an institution that can be conceptualized . He also purported that religious aspect of a specific culture are best practiced and understood by those who accept and acknowledge the validity of the religious aspects of their society. 

Geertz Theory 

He claimed that everybody has a religion despite the fact that they may not be subscribing to a God nor they believe in life after death. Every group of people has a religion because each person in the group has some framework that all members subscribe to.to begin with, he says that religion is a system of symbols. These symbols could be pictures, objects or relationships that convey some given form of message. These symbols shape the people's thinking, how people live and how they ought to live. According to Geertz, religion creates concepts of a general way of existence. Religion makes moods and motivation appear in a more realistic way. 

Karl Marx theory 

Karl Marx had a complex attitude towards religion. He viewed religion as a useful tool because it gave people false hope for the millennia. At the same time, he saw religion as a form of rebellion by the working class against the bad economic levels. He viewed religion as a retarding human development. Karl Marx saw religion in two different ways, one that is a negative thing and even described it as the opium of the people. Two, he described it positively as the only hope the oppressed people had in the bid to redeem themselves. 

William James’ Theory 

William James argued that religious experience should be the dominant topic while studying religion, and should supersede the study of religious institutions. James thought that faith in God amounts to a shortage of knowledge. He also questioned the religious aspect of belief. He claims that once someone believes in a thing or an event, they do not have a conclusive evident that one is believing. He further adds that personal experience should establish the definition of religion. He defines religion as the experiences of human individuals as far as their source of divinity is concerned. 

Sigmund Freud Theory 

Sigmund Freud viewed religion as an illusion, a way of man to search a fatherly figure who could be useful to restrain extreme behaviors such as violence. He further stated that religion was a product of the mind. According to him, religion found a heart in humanity because it was able to fall between ma's instinctual desires. He even compared religion to some form of neurosis. He further added that religion was an attempt to control the sensible world through the act of wishing. He criticizes religion, which however much it called itself the religion of love, it was unloving to those who did not associate themselves with it. 

Emile Durkheim 

In his early life, he argued that human beings could exist without religion. Later in his life, he started seeing religion as a more fundamental aspect of human life. He acknowledged that religion was part of human’s social life. Religion, according to him, was the most basic institution of life, upon which other institutions relied on growing. Religion was a product of human activity and not divine intervention. In a nutshell, Durkheim defined religion as an interconnected system of beliefs and practices that resembled sacred things. Therefore, for religion to exist there has to be three fundamental aspects. One is the sacred objects; two is the set of beliefs and practices and thirdly existence of a community that is morally upright. Durkheim also said that religion only came into being at the moment he referred to as the effervescence. This was the time when the members of a given community come together, assembled for divine intervention. When such happens, he continued, the joined powers of each member produces an electric like effect leading to some form of delirium. The force produce is the core element of religion because it makes the people feel some touch with an extraordinary being. 

Critics on Religious Experiences 

Robert Orsi 

At the beginning of his piece, Robert Orsi gives a narration about a case whereby his mother drafted a letter to the New York newspaper criticizing the Cardinal for condemning President Bill Clinton and the first lady for having received the Holy Communion despite the fact that they did not practice the Catholic faith. The cardinal also criticized the priest who administered the Holy Communion. Robert tries to create a picture of her mother who failed to understand why anyone would be denied the presence of Christ in his holiness, especially from the least expected person, the cardinal. From Robert's mother point of view, the cleric was creating a division between the Catholics and non-Catholics by belief and perception. Her mother was, however, defiant and she did not have belief in the flow of authority from the clerics. She questioned the cardinal's decision to deny people Christ in his holiness ignoring his status in the church. In this story, Robert tries to question theclergy’s authority in denying people what they thought were a source of power, inspiration, and comfort just for the sake of exercising power. He also questions the role of the clergy in trying to divide people along the lines of belief, in this scenario, the Catholics, and the non-Catholics 

Robert also criticizes how some scholars view the study of religion. In his views, the study of religion ought to be the study of what human beings do for, to and with the gods that are present. Here, the word God stands for all unique superhuman beings that human beings have been in the relationship with at the different time and places, and what that God does in turn for mankind . Instead, Robert notes that modern theories of religion focus on symbolizing God submerging them only into a theoretical world. 

Various theories of religion have painted the gods as fairly trustworthy terming them as agents of the social organization , law abidance, and order. Robert disputes this. He, in turn, claims that while gods have been good at times, they have also been witnessed to flout social norms, disrupt politics and disregarded the wishes of the powerful. So Robert assertion is that God has got both positive and negative attributes that should be regarded in equal measure. 

Robert also tries to question the Catholic faith in their practice of regarding the Holy Communion as a true reflection of a supernatural being. He was always of the belief that religion is a practice, it is about the relationship with God, the things he does for you and the things you do for him. Robert, therefore, was not convinced that God could exist in any form of the inanimate object, and in this, he criticizes the Catholic faith in doing so. 

Another area of religion where Robert tries to dispute is about the appearance and the disappearance of gods. He argues that if the gods were truly destined to disappear from the earth, then their impact wouldn’t be felt either. He claims that God is present, but his presence may not necessarily be a source of neither good nor bad. 

Winifred Sullivan 

She questioned the authorities and told them that they could not purport to be celebrating religious freedom and a t the same time denying it to people whose religion you do not subscribe. This was after the American liberals denied religious liberty to Hobby Lobby and Wheaton College. To explain their decision, the court and its supporters claimed that the Hobby Lobby and Wheaton College was neither religion nor good Christian practice. The argued that real Christians did not mix Christianity with business nor do they seek to disadvantage their counterparts in exercising their freedom. Winifred thought that the arguments were invalid and that they exposed the bigger rot in the religious freedom jurisprudence in the US. This exposed the falsehood of the government effort of ensuring religious freedom to all. The authorities are hiding under the law but in the real sense, they do not allow any religious practice that to them does not seem correct. Winifred classifies this as a religious discrimination to those whose practices are not in line with the mainstream. Here, Winifred tries to fight for the rights of the minorities by reminding the authorities including the liberals and the court that there isn't any form of religion that should be considered the right one, nor there is no good way of practicing religion. So long as the rights of an individual are not infringed , then everybody should practice religion in a way that best suits them. 

Winifred explores further on the issue of the American religion as she says that most Americans are dissociating themselves from authoritarian religions to a more free based kind of religion. She says that religion no longer occurs in the church as people are becoming more self-dependent and are finding their ways of practicing religion such as reading the bible etc. Religion is not organized or led by bishops or the church council, but it is now on their hands. The church is growingly losing a lot of people because of the continued shaping of how people are supposed to praise, worship and do other things that do not guarantee religious freedom. Therefore, most Americans have been forced to look for alternative areas where they can practice their religion without restraint. 

Winifred is surprised that the American authorities are opposed to religion mixing with business. She adds that business and religion have had a long history of collaboration, and these are two institutions that have grown depending on each other and hence cannot just be separated. 

According to Winifred, the American religion is very much obsessed with business and sex. What surprises her the most is that those opposed to the kind of faith, continue to hold on to the thought that religious freedom is all about rejecting the kind of religious practices you don't subscribe to . 

She also points religion and what is religious ought to be well defined by the law to avoid ambiguity in the law. She also identified cases where certain types of religion were stereotyped negatively due to past experiences that involved members of a particular religion. A good example is the Muslims, who are normally associated with terrorism. School going children and college students were also targeted if at all they refused to conform to the general laws concerning dress code. Winifred stated that this was a discrimination whose time had already elapsed. 

Smith’s Imagination 

Smith tries to correct the perception that there is data for religion. This is despite the idea that there are a vast number of experiences of phenomena concerning religion. Religion is just a creation of the scholar's study. He claims that religion is created for the sole purpose of analysis including comparison and generalization . He further adds that religion cannot exist other than for academic purposes. Therefore, the students of religion have to be more self-conscious. Smith further explains that the study of Judaism is the greatest source of knowledge concerning religion. Smith also explores the religious aspect of myths. He criticizes that there is nothing substantial in myths and that they are only texts in a context and are the only specific form of communications between people at specific points in time. 

Elizabeth Hurd 

In the previous years, North America and European countries have attempted to remake the art of religion in other countries legally via unprecedented initiatives. However, policymakers have supported the fact that enhancing religious freedom is the first step in combating discrimination. These initiatives to alter religion across the divide, if embraced, may lead to tension. Elizabeth Hurd tries to explore the critical channels of the state intervention. These include religious freedom advocacy, development assistance and building the nation and thirdly, international law. With freedom advocacy, every group across America and Europe is allowed to carry out their religious activities in harmony, respecting their nature, including their dressing, their divinities, and their holy calendars. In international law, a basis of protection will have been formed . The law must not be segregate and must accommodate all. Elizabeth noticed the fear that various world bodies would try to change laws to ensure the practice of religion is redefined and shaped only to suit a specific class of people. By enhancing international relations, guarantees are even assured to immigrants and tourists who may be traveling to countries that do not practice their religion. This will even enable schools that are strict on religion to ease their demands and be accommodative and tolerant enough to another set of people. 

In conclusion, religion remains an interesting area of knowledge, and different theories will still be put forward to try and explain the human reaction towards the supernatural world. However, the freedom of worship should be a top notch priority every country should accord their citizens. Faith and beliefs are an abstract aspect of life and therefore dictation as to what people should believe in amounts to massive injustice venomous to a society.