Question 1
Covalent bonding occurs between non-metals when atoms with similar electronegativity share electrons on the outermost orbital, for example, a bond between carbon and oxygen to form carbon dioxide, found in blood (CO2). The attraction between the elements could be equal or unequal. Where one element is more attracted to another, they form a covalent, polar bond, such as hydrogen and oxygen to form water that is a crucial component of blood.
Ionic bonds occur when metal bonds with a non-metal, as the two have a large electronegativity difference. The metal donates an electron in its outermost orbital to the non-metal, such as in sodium chloride, a common compound circulating in human blood.
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Hydrogen bonds occur in a way similar to a magnetic attraction. No electrons are transferred, but the attraction keeps the two molecules together. An example is the bonding in DNA (Oles et al., 2017).
Question 2
a). According to Kino, Vottero, & Chrousos, (2016), Mineralocorticoids regulate ion concentration, blood pressure, and urine production through control of electrolyte balance in extracellular fluids. Ammine hormones stimulate water reabsorption by promoting sodium and potassium reabsorption in kidney tubules. By doing so, they maintain balanced mineral concentration; reduce urine production to keep the body hydrated. When the above is achieved, adequate water in the body signals a reduction and eventually stop in mineralocorticoid secretion.
b)
A set-point means a level at which physiological state such as temperature is supposed to remain stable. For instance, when using a thermometer to measure a human’s temperature, the set-point is 37 degrees Celsius (Fuller, Yang, & Young, 2017).
A receptor is a cell or group of cells that receive a chemical signal, such as stimuli.
A control center is a structure in the body that determines a set point or range of what is normal in the human body.
An effector interprets and transmits chemical signals in response to stimuli. For instance, when the bladders are full, effectors interpret the signal as behold the threshold, which stimulates the brain to send a signal for the need to empty the bladder to its muscles.
References
Fuller, P. J., Yang, J., & Young, M. J. (2017). 30 years of the mineralocorticoid receptor: Coregulators as mediators of mineralocorticoid receptor signalling diversity. Journal of Endocrinology , 234 (1), T23-T34.
Kino, T., Vottero, A., & Chrousos, G. P. (2016). Mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors. Nuclear Receptor and Genetic Disease. , 297-307.
Oleś, A. M., Pfirsch, F., Fulde, P., & Böhm, M. C. (2017). Strength of electron correlations in different types of chemical bonds. Zeitschrift für Physik B Condensed Matter , 66 (3), 359-362.
