Researchers should always ensure that they uphold and adhere to the ethical requirements when conducting research. Research ethics mainly focus on informed consent, conflicts of interest, human rights, falsification and fabrication, and vulnerable population in the society. Even though many researchers strive to maintain ethical requirements, some have violated research ethics and morals ( Pannucci & Wilkins, 2010) . According to Ogungbure (2011), t he Tuskegee project remains to be one of the most unethical in medical history. The medical experiment that was conducted by the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) was aimed at determining the natural course among black men in Tuskegee, which is found in Alabama. At the same time, the researcher wanted to know whether black men react differently to syphilis when compared to their white counterparts. The experiment that was meant to take six months ended up lasting for about 40 years, and a lot of unethical research practices characterized it.
The Tuskegee violated some moral principles that guide any research. USPHS did not adhere to the required informed consent, which is about informing research participants about all aspects of research to help them make an informed decision ( Ogungbure, 2011) . The participants were not told of the exact objective of the experiment. On the contrary, they were informed that they were treated from "bad blood," which was not true. Thus apart from failure to comply with informed consent, requirement, USPHS also engaged in deception. Besides, participants were never informed that they were suffering from syphilis ( Heintzelman, 2003) . Also, USPHS took advantage of the vulnerable population and exploited them to achieve the research objectives. The research focused on poor people who had been subjected to a low level of care and did not have sufficient health literacy. Thus, the Tuskegee project was mostly unethical.
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We can learn some moral lessons from the case. First, Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) should not just approve medical studies, but it should do frequent follow-ups to ensure that all ethical requirements are met at every stage of the research. IRB, which was established after the Tuskegee experience, should mostly be responsible for ethical requirements in a medical study. Secondly, no medical study should be approved unless it benefits participants and the larger society ( Shavers, Lynch & Burmeister, 2000) . The study should specify how the participants will benefit from the study during and after completion. Thirdly, to ensure strict adherence to research moral principles, any individual or organization that violate the principles should be banned from conducting any research in the future.
Also, I think the statement "the pursuit of knowledge can never be defended as a self-justifying endeavor" means that the pursuit of knowledge should not be based on personal opinion or thought. On the contrary, people should use valid evidence to prove their arguments or the basis of their knowledge ( Pannucci & Wilkins, 2010) . I agree with the statement because human beings are likely to be biased and subjective, especially when facing a conflict of interest on a given issue. Knowledge should be based on evidence-based justification or argument.
Finally, different moral standards should not be applied in the case of certain types of research. All scientific studies should be subjected to similar moral standard to enhance compliance and easy monitoring and evaluation. A uniform moral standard will help in fostering integrity and morality in research ( Sayers, 2007) . Besides, the application of different moral standards will weaken the strength of the standards, reducing their compliance rate.
References
Heintzelman, C. A. (2003). The Tuskegee syphilis study and its implications for the 21st century. The New Social Worker , 10 (4), 4-5.
Ogungbure, A. A. (2011). The Tuskegee syphilis study: Some ethical reflections. Thought and Practice , 3 (2), 75-92.
Pannucci, C. J., & Wilkins, E. G. (2010). Identifying and avoiding bias in research. Plastic and reconstructive surgery , 126 (2), 619.
Sayers, G. M. (2007). Should research ethics committees be told how to think? Journal of medical ethics , 33 (1), 39-42.
Shavers, V. L., Lynch, C. F., & Burmeister, L. F. (2000). Knowledge of the Tuskegee study and its impact on the willingness to participate in medical research studies. Journal of the National Medical Association , 92 (12), 563.
