Introduction
Throughout the history of America, water has maintained a significant role to the society. It is depicted as a natural resource that is a basic need for human existence. It has served as a major source for drinking, farming, establishing nation boundaries and ensuring developments such as generation of electricity. Though 70% of the earth surface is covered in water, pollution and climate change ensures that much of it can cause health adversities to human and other life populations. This effect has taken place due to the human activities of innovation that prompt abuse not only in the US but also across the world. As a result numerous conflicts among its beneficiaries erupt throughout history. Water sources in Flint, Michigan and Standing Rock Sioux, North Dakota have been contested in the recent times due to economic, social, political and technological factors. The following paper will address the importance of water in each of the above factors in America’s history to the present protests regarding clean water.
Economic
As aforementioned, water plays a major role in the economic sustenance of the society. In the US, this practice is evident throughout history where members have incorporated water into numerous economic activities. A huge percentage of water used for economic activities in the 1900s was mainly for agricultural purposes. 1 This consumption depicts the lifestyle of individuals at the current time as many were still conducting farming. As the economy continued to grow, the use of water would grow due to the multiple industries that were developed between the 1880s and 1920s. The cotton industry would steadily increase as a means of providing its society with clothing. This occurrence rapidly increased the value of farms from $8 billion in 1860s to $30 billion in 1900s. 2 In this regard, water consumption was escalating at a drastic pace. The government would enable its state citizens to establish a unique system of dividing land for farmers to continue in their economic lifestyle.
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There were more industrial developments that would also utilize water in providing members with the respective needs. These included manufacturing of liquor, oil and mineral mining, and electro-chemicals among others. These industries caused significant deterioration of the land and the climate system. As presented in the Flint water crisis, the continued development of industries has led to contamination of water. 3 The pipe system was used as a means of transporting water from the original source to the numerous Following improper treatment of water techniques, the lead from aged pipes to contaminate the water posing a health hazard to the residents in the area. 4 A lot of money was spent in rectifying the problem as many citizens had developed health infections due to drinking the water in the area. Approximately $200 million will be used to replace the lead pipes while treating the water to make it safe for drinking. This amount would have served an alternative purpose of improving the city.
Social
The water resources have also served a social significance in multiple communities in the history of America. Water is used primarily in the households where its use is used for various daily activities. As observed in Flint city, water is used primarily for drinking and it is for this reason that its residents are currently experiencing a crisis. The Detroit Water and Sewage Department recognized the contamination in 2014. The switch to Flint River from a back up to a primary source resulted in significant complaints from residents claiming color and taste problems. The numerous individuals were significantly affected including children. Research has shown that from 2013 through to 2015 the blood-lead levels in children have increased significantly from 2.5% to 5% which quite high. 5 The city’s health centers are also increasingly treating members of the community where more than 80 individuals are suffering from the Legionnaires’ disease. This occurrence is a clear indicator of the importance of clean water to the residents of Flint, Michigan. 6
The Sacred Stone Camp was founded by LaDonna Brave Bull Allard the Standing Rock’s Preservation officer of the tribe. The site was established in April 2016 as a form of land preservation by the Historic leader. She and the members of her tribe recognize the area as a sacred place where many of their burial, ceremonial and traditional activities took place. The people were aware as Dakota Access Pipeline began plans for the construction of the underground pipes. 7 Some of the members suggested that Allard should start a camp for protests against the organization. Nevertheless, the government had approved the commencement f the construction despite the invasion on the land of the Native Indian tribes. Through the use of social media, Allard was able to call upon thousands of Americans and the world at large to come to the aide of this small community after the company indicated that the tribes’ concerns were unfounded. 8 The river is a sacred place that the government and large corporations continue to disregard.
Politics
Water is an important element in the numerous political conflicts that have taken place in the US. The state and federal government share significant blame for inappropriate conservation or management of water resources. In the Flint crisis, numerous government officials have been held for criminal charges due to the contaminations that affected all of its residents and many of its children suffering irreparable damages. The structure of the federal and state governments where authorities overlap and other mismatch ensures that decisions made regarding water conservation remain unknown. The country also experiences significant residential segregation resulting in the poor and colored populations suffering the most. 9 The city leaders of Flint had earlier planned to build a pipeline in Lake Huron but through the government officials and a millionaire in the region, residents are at the mercy of Detroit’s Water and Sewer System for the next three decades resulting in high prices for water.
Additionally, water is important to the members of Standing Rock Indian Reservation. In the spring of 2016, protests began following approval of Energy Transfer Partners’ Dakota Access Pipeline that provides natural gas and propane to build pipes that would run under the Missouri and Mississippi rivers from west North Dakota to Southern Illinois. It is for this reason that the Standing Rock Sioux, protested against the building of the pipes. The government has invaded the Lakota and Dakota people for more than 150 years. 10 The tribes in the Northern Plains inhabited a large area and would conduct their cultural activities without trouble. However, following the developments in the 19 th and 20 th Centuries, the land area of the people continues to diminish despite the 1851 and 1868 treaties within the region. 11 It is evident that despite the recognition of the Standing Rock Indian Reservation as a sovereign nation, their input is disregarded.
Technology
The continued innovation of technology is at the heart of water problems currently affecting the regions. Since the late 19 th Century when industries rapidly increased following an economic boom in the country, the natural water resources have been abused by government and the arising corporation. 12 In some case, both played a hand in the problems experienced. The industrial companies that provide growth and development in the various regions of the country are seen to easily sway government and city officials to permit unlawful actions that place the environment in danger. The lead contamination of the Flint water crisis is a clear indication of the problems that technology has caused on water. Despite the beneficial gain of water in enabling technology development, mismanagement and greed now places the health of the citizens in danger.
Following the occurrences in Flint, Michigan the tribes that reside in the Standing Rock Indian Reservation have come up against corporations whose economic activities may endanger the water resources in the area. Dakota Access Pipeline is the approved corporation to build pipes that run under the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. Numerous individuals are concerned that the construction will significantly contaminate the waters of the area. The pipelines under constructions will transmit natural gas and propane both of which can adversely affect the health of human and other living things. 13 The mistakes that occurred in Michigan could also affect the tribes of the North Dakota region that attempt to preserve the environment.
Conclusion
Water is an important resource in the society that enables economic, social, political and technological developments. However, through the activities of selfish individuals for more than a century, water resources are exploited infringing on the rights of the people it serves. Politics has driven these negative activities where greed for personal wealth and increased power leads officials to disregard the welfare of the ordinary people. The events of Flint, Michigan and Standing Rock Sioux, North Dakota are a clear identification of the continued negligence towards the water resources. A significant number of children in Flint have suffered permanent damage due to such political activities. In light of these events, the Native American tribes have protested against the participation of private corporations who may recklessly endanger their lives while pursuing their personal agenda. Furthermore, the people implore the government to respect their cultural and spiritual beliefs.
Bibliography
Atlas, Ronald M., and Terry C. Hazen. "Oil biodegradation and bioremediation: a tale of the two worst spills in US history." Environmental science & technology 45, no. 16 (2011): 6709-15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155281/pdf/es2013227.pdf
Carasik, Lauren. "US Environmental Injustice Goes Well Beyond Flint." Western New England University School of Law , February 6, 2016. http://digitalcommons.law.wne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1077&context=media
Donnella, Leah. “The Standing Rock Resistance Is Unprecedented (It's Also Centuries Old).” NPR , November 22, 2016. http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/11/22/502068751/the-standing-rock-resistance-is-unprecedented-it-s-also-centuries-old
Donnelly, Kristina and Heather Cooley. “ Water Use Trends in the United States .” Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute. 2015. http://pacinst.org/app/uploads/2015/04/Water-Use-Trends-Report.pdf
GreenMedInfo. “A Special Report on Standing Rock: The Environmental and Social Justice Consequences of the Dakota Access Pipeline” GreenMedInfo , October 28, 2016. http://www.greenmedinfo.com/blog/special-report-standing-rock-environmental-and-social-justice-consequences-dakota
Medina, Daniel A. “Sioux's Concerns Over Pipeline Impact on Water Supply 'Unfounded,' Company Says” NBC NEWS , September 13, 2016. http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/dakota-pipeline-protests/sioux-s-concerns-over-pipeline-impact-water-supply-unfounded-company-n647576
Mufson, Steven. “Standing Rock Sioux making last stand to block controversial Dakota Access pipeline.” The Washington Post , November 25, 2016. http://www.denverpost.com/2016/11/25/standing-rock-sioux-making-last-stand-block-dakota-access-pipeline/
Norman, Emma, Karen Bakker, and Christina Cook. "Introduction to the themed section: Water governance and the politics of scale." Water Alternatives 5, no. 1 (2012): 52.
Troustine, Jessica. “How racial segregation and political mismanagement led to Flint’s shocking water crisis.” The Washington Post , February 8, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/02/08/heres-the-political-history-that-led-to-flints-shocking-water-crisis/?utm_term=.e549891f5fa8
1 Kristina Donnelly and Heather Cooley. “ Water Use Trends in the United States .” Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute. 2015. http://pacinst.org/app/uploads/2015/04/Water-Use-Trends-Report.pdf
2 Ibid 8.
3 Lauren Carasik. "US Environmental Injustice Goes Well Beyond Flint." Western New England University School of Law , February 6, 2016. http://digitalcommons.law.wne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1077&context=media
4 Emma Norman, Karen Bakker, and Christina Cook. "Introduction to the themed section: Water governance and the politics of scale." Water Alternatives 5, no. 1 (2012): 52.
5 Carasik. "US Environmental Injustice Goes Well Beyond Flint." February 6, 2016.
6 Ibid.
7 GreenMedInfo. “A Special Report on Standing Rock: The Environmental and Social Justice Consequences of the Dakota Access Pipeline” GreenMedInfo , October 28, 2016. http://www.greenmedinfo.com/blog/special-report-standing-rock-environmental-and-social-justice-consequences-dakota
8 Daniel A. Medina. “Sioux's Concerns Over Pipeline Impact on Water Supply 'Unfounded,' Company Says” NBC NEWS , September 13, 2016. http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/dakota-pipeline-protests/sioux-s-concerns-over-pipeline-impact-water-supply-unfounded-company-n647576
9 Jessica Troustine. “How racial segregation and political mismanagement led to Flint’s shocking water crisis.” The Washington Post , February 8, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/02/08/heres-the-political-history-that-led-to-flints-shocking-water-crisis/?utm_term=.e549891f5fa8
10 Steven Mufson. “Standing Rock Sioux making last stand to block controversial Dakota Access pipeline.” The Washington Post , November 25, 2016. http://www.denverpost.com/2016/11/25/standing-rock-sioux-making-last-stand-block-dakota-access-pipeline/
11 Ibid.
12 Ronald M. Atlas, and Terry C. Hazen. "Oil biodegradation and bioremediation: a tale of the two worst spills in US history." Environmental science & technology 45, no. 16 (2011): 6709-15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155281/pdf/es2013227.pdf
13 Leah Donnella. “The Standing Rock Resistance Is Unprecedented (It's Also Centuries Old).” NPR , November 22, 2016. http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/11/22/502068751/the-standing-rock-resistance-is-unprecedented-it-s-also-centuries-old
