Criminology refers to the scientific study of crime by evaluating its causes, treatment by law enforcers and ways in which it can be prevented. Criminology evaluates criminal behavior from an individual, social, and natural perspective and examines how it can be managed controlled and restricted. Criminology is an interdisciplinary subject that draws on other topics including sociology, psychology, and anthropology. It also draws from biology economics, and statistics (Crowe, 2018).Criminology has several subgroups which include: penology which focuses on prison and prison systems. Bio criminology examines the biological causes and inspiration of criminal behavior. Feminist criminology studies women involvement in crimes while crime detection is studied under criminalistics (Watts et al., 2008).
Criminology as a discipline has several core concepts defined as follows:
Crime refers to an act committed by the criminal which has been prohibited and is punishable by the law (Innes, 2003). Crimes are punished through imprisonment and other forms of punishment based on the act of crime committed and as stipulated under the law.
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Deviance or deviant behavior refers to behavior which violates social norms, traditional and customary accepted standards in the society,
Delinquency refers to the failure to act according to the law where a minor commits the acts. The person who commits the crime is seen to as a delinquent and is accused of committing minor criminal acts (Crowe, 2018).
Juvenile delinquency refers to violent or nonviolent criminal acts performed by minors or persons under the age of eighteen years. The criminals referred to as juveniles are taken care of by the legal systems under prescribed procedures (Innes, 2003).
Schools of Criminology
There exist six schools of criminology which include Pre-Classical School, Classical School, Neo-Classical School, Positive School, Sociological School, and Multi-Factor School. The different schools seek to explain the nature of crime in society by evaluating ways in which social order can be restored. Traditional schools of criminology assess crime by offering examples from the physical, material and natural world (Crowe, 2018).. The schools are concerned with developing generalizations about crime, criminal activities, and behavior. They also evaluate the relationship between the crime rate and the social conditions existing in the society. The schools examine criminal activity from the early centuries and narrow down to the twentieth and twenty-first century’s trends in crimes.
Major Theories of Criminology
Theories of criminology discuss the causation, correction, and prevention of crimes. They include:
Classical theories
The argument is founded on the works of Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham and argues that people engage in crimes through free will. People chose freely to think and act in forbidden acts guided by the desire for pleasure and avoidance of pain. Their idea to correct and prevent crimes is based on punishment severity such that the pain of punishment becomes incomparable to the pleasure of engaging in crimes.
Positivist theory
The theory was developed by Cesare Lombroso who proposed that criminals were born and did not develop based on environment (Coleman & Norris, 2013). He argued that crime was a natural act and that certain physical features presented possibility and definite signs of a person becoming a criminal.
Biological theories
Under this theory, criminologists incorporated biology and statistics in their studies. Criminologists used genetics in the determination of linkage of criminal behaviors among family members. Statistics were used to study the population and the emergence of crimes. The theories relied on physical occurrence to differentiate between offenders and non-offenders.
Psychological theories
Psychologists, Sigmund Freud and B.F. Skinner, developed psychological paradigms that focus on the forces and drives that push people to engage in crimes. The development of personality through the id, ego, and superego affects criminal behavior (Coleman & Norris, 2013). Psychological influence through the principle of operant determined that behaviors of a criminal were influenced by the rewards and punishment expected.
Sociological theories
The theorists focus on the social environments and how they cause crimes. The research found that social disorganization influenced the case of crimes (Watts et al., 2008). Other theorists claimed that crimes were learned in the society on the operant conditioning principle of psychology.
Critical theories
The theories include ides based on the Marxists theory, feminists and critical race theorists. Marxists examined the resources in society and those who control the powers and the enforcement of the law. The owners of resources and factors of production exploit the workers in their wages leading to criminal acts to supplement their salaries and meet their daily needs (Nirmala, 2012) Feminist theorists examine crime through evaluation of women treatment compared to those of men in the event of crimes. Critical racists’ theory emphasize the role played by race in crime such as the overrepresentation of people of color in the criminal justice system (Coleman & Norris, 2013).
Critique of the Theories
The theories can be criticized based on their emphasis and interpretation on the causes and mode of correction for different crimes. Classical theory can be criticized for its focus on crime through the comparison of pleasure and the consequent punishment as it fails to accommodate crimes which have no comfort but have severe punishment (Innes, 2003). The positivist theories are disregarded due to their generalizations which fail to apply to all individuals based on their physical characteristics. Biological theories can be criticized for their concentration on genetics and families relationship with crime. Many individuals have engaged I criminal acts while other family members fail to indulge in such behaviors through strict observance of the law (Nirmala, 2012).The sociological theories fail to demonstrate the relationship of the environment with crimes and the inability to explain why certain environments which lead to atrocities in other people fail to have such effect on the others in similar situations. Psychological theories complex analysis has no direct link or relationship with criminal activity. Critical opinions of Marxism feminism and race can be criticized based on their arguments such as why Marxists fail to explain why lack of power and resources do not inspire some criminal acts but emotions and physical abilities (Nirmala, 2012)
Criminology Theories Experiences and Existing Research
Existing research and various studies have proofed different exposures in criminological theories Research on the conflict theory of Karl Marx, where the difference in resources affects the level of engagement in crimes, has been proven through research which found out that the poor and the minorities have been found to be more active in criminal activities (Coleman & Norris, 2013). Research has also proved causes of crimes to be based on social environments and socialization as well as learning from interactions with different groups in society. The study, however, is yet to prove on biological theories mainly those who associate physical appearance and attributes to crime. Research is yet to establish a correlation between physical and genetically composition with the ability to commit criminal acts due to rare occurrences in such cases.
Types of Crime and Delinquent Conduct
Individual delinquency
This is a type of delinquent behavior where only an individual is involved in committing the crime. Psychiatrists discuss the causes of the criminal actions as originating from within the individual (Nirmala, 2012). The individual is associated with psychological problems which emerge from defective family patterns and influences.
Group supported delinquency
This refers to criminal activities conducted by a group of individuals. The cause of the delinquent behavior is attributed to the culture in the individuals’ neighborhood as opposed to individual personality or family (Coleman & Norris, 2013).
Organized delinquency
These are criminal activities actualized by organized groups. Organized delinquency is based on the development of a subculture with a set of values and norms that govern the behavior and actions of the group. The group activities interactions and associations are determined by the set values and behaviors (Nirmala, 2012) The group awards status to the exceptional group players based on the nature of the criminal activities accomplished measured by the risk undertaken. The behaviors are rooted in the structure of the society.
Situational delinquency
This term refers to committing criminal activities dependent on the current situation with no rooted motives or factors which contribute to the action such as family influence or personal conviction due to lack of the development of impulse control (Watts et al., 2008). The individual or groups which engage in situational delinquency have nothing to lose even when apprehended during the action.
Societal Responses to Illegal Conduct
The society displays different reactions to criminal activities based on the social constructs. Social constructs refer to the social classification of people based on the definition of crimes, the available forms of policing and their effectiveness, and the determination of the social characteristics of criminals. Labeling of crime and criminal activities limits social responses to crimes. Societal responses trigger social repercussion based on who is labeled as a criminal, by whom and the criteria used in labeling.
The society responds to criminal and delinquent behavior through social control through regulation and enforcement of norms. Social control is intended to change behavior and enable the maintenance of social order in the society (Innes, 2003). The community also responds to crimes through rewards and punishment where those who follow societal rules and code of conduct by adhering to the set behaviors are rewarded, and those who violate the manner are punished. The society has also developed various other forms of responses to crimes such as placement of fines and compensation methods. Individuals have also been engaged in therapy and education with the aim of correcting and preventing the occurrences of criminal activities in the society.
References
Coleman, C., & Norris, C. (2013). Introducing criminology. London: Willan . Retrieved from https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134016877 Preview pdf.
Crowe, Earl. (2018).W hat Is Criminology? - Definition, History & Theories . Criminal Justice 101: Intro to Criminal Justice. Retrieved From: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-criminology-definition-history-theories.html .
Innes, Martin. (2003). Understanding Social Control: Deviance, Crime and Social Order . Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press. Retrieved from: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter7-deviance-crime-and-social-control/
Nirmala K. Glory (2012). Understanding Criminology . Abyssinia Law. Retrieved From: https://www.abyssinialaw.com/about-us/item/443-understanding-criminology
Watts, R., Bessant, J., & Hill, R. (2008). International criminology: a critical introduction. Routledge. Retrieved from: https://content.taylorfrancis.com/books/download?dac=C2009-0-24543-9&isbn=9781134083343&format=googlePreviewPdf
