Odontology
The study of tooth structure and development is known as odontology. The use of the knowledge thereof in the identification of human remains using dental remains is referred to as forensic odontology. Chowdhry, Kapoor, Bablani, & Sircar (2018) found that a forensic odontologist is necessary if a successful forensic facial approximation is to be carried out. First, odontologists possess knowledge that could be useful in facial anatomical modeling. The odontological focus on the lower facial anatomy facilitates a high accuracy in estimation of important facial points based on the bone structure. Moreover, odontologists are familiar with soft tissue morphology and placement over the facial bones. This morphology often a chief determinant of the facial shape differences observed between different individuals.
The natural teeth are also one of the most durable human parts. They are often the last human parts to survive after total or partial disfiguration of the rest of the human being. Odontology therefore becomes one of the most reliable forensic identification methods. Once odontologists have approximated the shape of the skull, tissue depth can then be determined. It, therefore, becomes possible to approximate the facial features of the deceased which can then be presented to the public for identification.
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Bone Formation
There are three primary types of cells of which bones consist: osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts are found in the bone lining and are immature bone cells. Some of their functions include the manufacturing of hormones, for example, prostaglandins, as well as production of phosphatase. Phosphatase facilitates bone mineralization. These cells subsequently mature into osteocytes. Osteocytes occupy lacunae, which are spaces found within bone matrix which was produced in the previous cellular stage. Some of the functions of osteocytes include communication amongst themselves, and with osteoblasts, bone formation, matrix maintenance and calcium homeostasis. Osteoclasts often have similar characteristics as circulating macrophages. Some of their functions include bone remodeling and resorption.
There are various skeletal features and markings that are useful in determining the growth or age of the person. Forensic anthropology allows for various techniques to be used in this analysis. A skeleton may belong to an infant, adult or sub-adult (Lundy, 1998). In children, teeth development and eruption is usually one of the most reliable methods of growth determination. The state of epiphyses at the shafts and ends of long bones also help assist in estimating growth. This is because different long bones fuse at different ages. The state or changes in the pubic symphysis are used in the determination of age for people in late adulthood. There are also degenerative features visible in older adults, especially in joints and spine. Moreover, microscopic investigation of bone tissue as well as ventral ribs changes can be helpful for age estimation.
The skull contains numerous bones, but the general consensus is that they are 22. The neurocranium consists of eight bones while the facial skeleton consists of 14. The bones in the neurocranium are the two parietal, two temporal, occipital, frontal, sphenoid and ethmoid bones. The facial skeleton is composed of the two nasal bones, two inferior nasal conchae, two maxilla, two zygomatic bones, two palantine bones, two lacrimal bones, the vomer and the mandible. The facial skeletal bones support the face. Facial features are drawn from the muscle and flesh depth on the facial bones. The neurocranium forms a protective casing for the brainstem and the brain, which are housed in the cranial cavity. Bones in the skull have various functions including protection of the brain and brain stem, interconnecting with neighboring bones, among numerous others. Notably, all bones in the skull except the mandibles are connected by synarthroidal joints.
Muscles
Facial muscles often determine facial contours and control facial expressions. The occipitofrontalis is one of the major facial muscles controlling the forehead muscle. The temporalis muscle controls side-to-side jaw movement while the masseter clamps the jaws together (Kreutz & Verhoff, 2007). The orbicularis oris is the circular lip muscle that controls the outer shape of the front of the mouth, while the obicularis occuli control the movement of the eyelids. The Levator Labii Superiolis Alaeque Nasi facilitates the raising of the upper lip as well as nostril dilation. Other facial muscles include the zygomatic major, zygomatic minor, risorius, and depressor anguli oris, among others.
Facial approximation is done by determining tissue thickness on the face. Tissue thickness depends on the size and positioning of the facial muscles based on the skull shape. Forensic facial reconstruction using facial muscles is regarded as highly subjective (Wilkinson, 2003). While the general facial shape may be determined by superimposing the expected shapes of the facial muscles upon the facial skeleton, it is virtually impossible to determine the outward facial appearance (Kreutz & Verhoff, 2007). Outward facial appearance will be dependent on other tissue aside from the facial muscles, such as lip tissue and ear cartilage. Outward facial images developed for identification are therefore highly dependent on artistic impression, rather than on a factual basis. Past success on forensic facial reconstruction however fuels its continued use and research.
References
Chowdhry, A., Kapoor, P., & Bablani P. D., & Sircar, K. (2018). “ Inclusion of Forensic Odontologist in Team of Forensic Facial Approximation-A Proposal and Technical Note.” Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 10. 10.7860/JCDR/2018/35863.12003.
Kreutz, K., & Verhoff, M. A. (2007). Forensic facial reconstruction-identification based on skeletal findings. DEUTSCHES ARZTEBLATT-KOLN- , 104 (17), 985.
Lundy, J. K. (1998). Forensic anthropology: What bones can tell us. Laboratory Medicine , 29 (7), 423-427 Top of Form
Wilkinson, C. (2003). Forensic facial reconstruction . New York: Cambridge University Press.
