A starving man, who scoffs at the offer for stale bread, calls it an insult, and insists on his right to eat a fresh one like everyone else can easily be called mad. This was the reaction Du Bois got when he rejected a hard negotiated deal between Booker Washington and the Southern community, as a piecemeal reprieve from the Jim Crow laws (Burghardt, 2014). For Du Bois however, it was either equal treatment before the law or nothing at all (Worrell, 2013). His dream finally came true with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, albeit Du Bois never lived long enough to see it (Worrell, 2013).
This however, defines a man who was determined not to conform to what society defined him as, but rather created an identity for himself (Worrell, 2013). Du Bois eventually changed the world and became one of the fathers of contemporary sociology in general and particularly its definition of ethnicity and racism (Burghardt, 2013; Back & Tate, 2014). This research paper looks at the life of Du Bois as a man, a black man, a black intellectual and a sociologist as well as his contributions to the field of sociology in general and particularly ethnic and racial matters.
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Du Bois Biography with Emphasis on Racial Divide
Du Bois can be said to have been born on the right side as far as the Jim Crow laws are concerned. Indeed, had he been born in the southern USA, his story may have been told quite differently if at all. He was born on 23rd February, 1868 at Great Barrington in Massachusetts (Staff, 2015). His father, Alfred Silvina was only in his life briefly as he left when Bu Bois was two years old leaving him in the care of his maternal family (Burghardt, 2014). His family tree on his mother’s side shows a heritage from West Africa where his ancestors were captured and brought to the US as slaves.
However, by fighting in the Revolutionary War, his ancestors were granted freedom many generations before he was born. His grandfather on his paternal side was however, a human breeder as it was a traditional practice during slavery (Burghardt, 2014). According to the practice, a man who showed superior physical qualities would have children with as many slave women as possible in a bid to create better slaves in the same way that cattle are bred today (Du Bois, 2015). It is through this traditional form of eugenics that Du Bois’ father was born. In a surprising twist however, Du Bois later supported the concept of eugenics (Staff, 2015). He however castigated the American Eugenics Movement for upholding the notion that black people were genetically inferior (Staff, 2015).
Albeit his hometown was predominantly white, Du Bois was treated well and was able to access education (Burghardt, 2014). He was able to attend a mixed public school and interact with white schoolmates. This would have been an anathema in a southern state school at this time. He graduated from the Searles High School, and being an exemplary student, the First Congregational Church of Great Barrington decided to sponsor his college education. He was, therefore, able to attend the Fisk University, a blacks-only, but great college in Nashville Tennessee (Du Bois, 2013).
Fisk University was a different world from what Du Bois was used to in the New England State of Massachusetts. In 1885, Tennessee was a dangerous place for a colored person as it was around this time that the black people had started seeking for universal suffrage. The majority white community responded with barbaric atrocities. Black men and women were being persecuted, beaten and even killed with no fear of repercussions. Being used to fair treatment and respect in the North, this was a major shock for Du Bois (Du Bois, 2013).
Perchance this is where his favor as a civil rights activist was born (Staff, 2015). Albeit he graduated from Fisk University, the degree was not recognized by Harvard back in the north and he had to redo his graduate studies, this time as a self-sponsored student through summer jobs (Du Bois, 2015). In 1890, he graduated with a Harvard degree in history. His postgraduate studies in sociology, a budding discipline by then was to get him a scholarship to study in Berlin, Germany. This enabled him to meet with many prominent sociologists and opinion leaders as well as travel extensively within Europe (Du Bois, 2015). After his return, he was able to complete his post-graduate studies successfully, and this made him the first colored American to earn a Harvard Ph.D. (Du Bois, 2015).
Du Bois Concept of Race and Ethnicity
Double consciousness
Whereas Du Bois made many contributions to the field of sociology, perchance the greatest amongst them is the concept and theory of double consciousness (Burghardt, 2013). This was the first statement by a black man informing the white majority in the USA that the small bones thrown at a few privileged black men were considered an insult rather than a favor. This implied that the least a colored American would accept was complete equality in a societal setting. The essence of the concept was that Du Bois was a great man, not just a great black man. He was a PhD holder from Harvard University premised purely on merit (Staff, 2015).
During this path, he had never received a watered down curriculum or been assisted in his examinations (Burghardt, 2013). This made his academic achievement at par with other white PhD holders. However, simply because of the color of his skin, America looked at him differently. He was not an intellectual, but an African American intellectual (Burghardt, 2013). Despite being perhaps among the most meritorious Americans of his time, he would still need to stand in the bus if an illiterate white man walked in as he was still considered an inferior citizen (Burghardt, 2013).
Therefore, even in his own eyes, he was compelled to view himself differently if only as a survival tactic. In the 19th Century America, a black man trying to assert himself in some states would be killed with impunity (Du Bois, 2015). The double consciousness, therefore, meant being a black man before being considered an intellectual or an academician. It was a protest against being looked through the eyes of history as a child of a slave and seeking to be considered purely on merit (Du Bois, 2015). He also indicated his confusion in trying to fuse the two notions of being American and being black. As am American and a patriot, he loved his country although this same country continuously persecuted him premised on his skin color (Du Bois, 2015).
Statement of the racial problem in the USA
Whereas everyone knew that racism was a problem in the USA, what made Du Bois different was his opinion on what should be done about it, and his concept of how this end should be achieved (Back & Tate, 2014). To give the matter a perspective, it is important to elucidate on what Du Bois was up against (Du Bois, 2015). The USA was formed from 13 colonies of the mighty British Empire. In their rapid expansion upon realization by Magellan in the 16th Century that the earth was round, the British took up more land than they could cultivate. There was an urgent need for labor, and this was found in the continent of Africa, in the form of the Negroid population.
By their thousands, Africans were seduced and they undertook the journey to the Americas as bonded servants. The labor market still had a deficit and the British took a different approach. The benign approach of bonded servants was abandoned and Africans began to be kidnapped and taken to the Americans to work to their death as slaves. The saddest part is when the 13 colonies declared their independence from Britain through the Declaration of Independence as they clearly stated that all Americans were born equal and free. However, slave trade and slavery still ensued but only for black people (Staff, 2015). After the declaration, the articles of the confederacy came and were vociferous about the freedom of the 13 colonies but silent about the issue of slavery (Staff, 2015). Even after the passage of the American constitution complete with the bill of rights, slavery and even slave trade continued.
Finally, the start of Civil War brought about the freedom of all slaves although it introduced a Jim Crow era where racial discrimination was guaranteed by law (Elbashir et al., 2015). Attempts to have the Jim Crow laws repealed led to the persecution experienced when Du Bois was in Tennessee (Elbashir et al, 2015).
Booker Washington’s solution
This background makes it easier to understand why the great Booker Washington was willing to accede to the superiority of the white man over the black man (Worrell, 2013). Booker, overcome by his double consciousness realized that the Southern black man would never win equal status with the white man. Booker, therefore, tried to negotiate a pact so that by accepting the superiority of the white man, the black Americans would be allowed to have a basic education and given room for economic expansion (Aldridge, 2015).
From sociology perspective, however, had the Booker’s Atlanta Compromise gone through, racism would no longer have been an anathema (Back & Tate, 2014). It would have become justified and transformed into a societal norm. With the black community readily accepting the superiority of the white people, they would become inferior even in their own eyes. It is on this premise that Du Bois vociferously opposed the Atlanta compromise. Further, Du Bois did not envisage the education of the black community as a privilege or their economic activities as a favor (Aldridge, 2015). Indeed, he would later advocate for the black communities to leave the southern states and settle in the northern states where they could pursue a good education and get economic empowerment (Worrell, 2013; Aldridge, 2015).
The Du Bois solution
Du Bois collected a group of like-minded individuals to oppose the Atlanta compromise as aforesaid (Worrell, 2013). Further, the group offered the minimum concession that the African American community should accept from the white people. Further, Du Bois went further and propagated the notion that in society, it is not just enough for a segment to know their entitlement, but it was upon that segment to seek for and obtain their rights. (Worrell, 2013). With this in mind, Du Bois and like-minded Americans, both black and white came together and formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) (Davari, 2015). Du Bois ensured that the word colored was used instead of white to promote exclusivity (Lewis, 2014). Further, Moorfield Storey was made the first president of the association as an evolutionary sign of inclusivity (Davari, 2015).
Du Bois was made the director of publicity, and the editor of the organization’s magazine titled The Crisis (Davari, 2015). This became a well-suited position for Du Bois as he undertook two main obligations. The first was to seek to transform the notions that the black community was inferior human beings and he accomplished this by elucidating on the history of Africa and its great heritage (Mullen, 2015). He also made a strong argument to the effect that the thinking capacities and intelligence of the black man were at par with that of their white counterparts (Davari, 2015).
The second obligation was to highlight the plight of the black people and push for their rights (Mullen, 2015). Among his first points of attack was the lynching of black people that had become a common practice in the southern states and a group of white people could kill any number of black people with no fear of repercussions (Davari, 2015). To show just how huge the problem was, Du Bois told the stories of thousands of young people who had been killed through lynching and called on the federal government to outlaw the practice (Mullen, 2015). The NAACP and the Crisis magazine become powerful, and during the 1912 presidential race, Woodrow Wilson made a pact with the NAACP and Du Bois to support his presidential bid. In return, Woodrow was to support the black community's causes, especially regarding lynching. Unfortunately when Woodrow won, he reneged on his word (Davari, 2015). 5
Du Bois and Intra-Racial Relations: Pan-Africanism
Even as Du Bois fought for inter-racial equality, he appreciated the importance of intra-racial cooperation amongst the minorities. He, therefore, moved for a joint force among the black community to make a united stand against the dominance and persecution from the white community (Du Bois, 2014; Grischow & Weiss, 2015). In the US, for instance, Du Bois did not spare the members of the black community whose actions conformed to racial discrimination (Davari, 2015). Most of the target black individuals were members of the black clergy and other church leaders of color. He propagated the idea that on the issue of racial discrimination, there was no middle ground and all members of the black community were either fighting against the vice or condoning it (Davari, 2015).
In the global arena, he focused his attention on the African continent, which after slavery became a colony of European powers. He believed that the solution for colonization and the emancipation of the black peoples lay in their unity (Du Bois, 2014). At the turn of the 20th Century, he was involved in the maiden Pan African conference that was held in London. Therein, he made a passionate appeal for the African community to unite and not fall victim to the western ploy of divide and rule. Using his prowess in history, he sought to prove to the African people about their rich heritage (Du Bois, 2014).
As a policy, the white man had always used the ruse of making Africans believe that they were an inferior people who depended on the white community to deliver civilization to them (Grischow & Weiss, 2015). To undo this, Du Bois taught them about the history of Africa that at one point placed it as a more civilized continent than Europe, which had been considered as barbaric until the advent of Christianity through the Roman Empire. Towards this end, he researched on the history of African people and published a historical treatise titled the Negro in 1915 (Grischow & Weiss, 2015). This has been a source of most of the learning and publishing on the history of the African people (Grischow & Weiss, 2015).
Another means of intra-racial interaction supported by Du Bois was an economic coalition. Du Bois understood that money knew no race. If the black community were economically endowed, it would be able to fight for its place as an equal in the society. He, therefore, advocated for the pooling together of resources amongst the black community in the USA. Most importantly, he supported the idea of a Pan-African Federation (Staff, 2015). His idea of Pan-Africanism was one big federation that would bring together the economic capacities of the African continent (Du Bois, 2014). Once powerful through unity, Africa would be able to fend for itself against attempts to dominate it by foreign powers.
It was from the influence of Du Bois that concepts like those held by Kwame Nkrumah that Africa will only be free when all colonies are free came into existence (Grischow & Weiss, 2015). Perchance had his idea of Pan-Africanism succeeded, the continent would currently be a major player in the world economic scene (Pierre, 2014). Du Bois always believed in the power of information as a force to bring the African community together (Du Bois, 2014). Among his pet projects, one that he died in Ghana while pursuing was the development of and publishing of an Africa encyclopedia. The seeds of Pan-Africanism may not have achieved fruition but are still alive (Pierre, 2014).
Summary of Du Bois’ Contribution to Sociology and Conclusion
The upshot of the foregoing is that Du Bois was a great human rights activist, crusader against racial discrimination, and a Pan-Africanist. He made major contributions to the subject of sociology in general, and his first major contribution regarded the issue of race and ethnicity. Whereas today it is an assumed fact that all races and ethnic groups are equal, this was not the case in the days of Du Bois. As was seen above, in his studies in the southern state of Tennessee, he witnessed black people being treated as subhuman.
Du Bois stood and gave a declaration that even the most powerful black American leader at the time; Booker T Washington, thought impossible. He fought to ensure that all men were equal physiologically and psychologically hence, must be treated equally. Indeed, Du Bois was among the premier sociologists to declare that equal treatment was a right when even black leaders were willing to accede otherwise.
Regarding inter-racial relationships, Du Bois believed that races should work together, but not against one another. He insisted that the NAACP use the name colored instead of black because he equally considered the rights of other racial minorities in America. Further, he included white people in the NAACP and even allowed for the appointment of an initial white president of the organization. However, Du Bois still supported intra-racial relations and believed in unity through strength. He supported the concept of members of the same race supporting one another, and he took this further by supporting the union of African nations as one powerful force under the Pan-Africanism concept. It was while working towards this end that he passed on in Ghana.
Racial discrimination, prejudice and stigmatization of any kind were an anathema according to Du Bois. All people were to live together with each man being judged according to his capacity. He fought hard against the Jim Crow laws, and the lynching meted against black people with impunity. On the subject of racial differences, Du Bois believed that albeit differences between races exist, it does not make any race superior to the other. Regarding capacity and intelligence, all races are at par subject to availability of opportunities.
Finally, Du Bois believed and propagated the notion that the knowledge of right and wrong created an obligation to intervene. Furthermore, when a benevolent intervention does not elicit the required result, Du Bois propagated a demand for one’s rights without violence. His main weapon of choice was the power of the written and published word. He also believed in non-violent protests and organized quite a number of them. In all fairness, Du Bois may not have always been right, a good case in point being his support of the eugenics movement, but his contribution to the field of sociology cannot be over emphasized.
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