9/11 and Hurricane Katrina Disaster: Crisis Communication

Thesis Statement 

The media plays an essential role in intensifying the psychological effects emaciating from disasters as they retell the stories because they give rise to the emotions. Disasters such as 9/11 terrorist attack and Hurricane Katrina disasters had psychological effects on both the survivors and society at large because they led to PTSD, anxiety, and depression on both adults and children.

Outline 

Introduction 

Thesis: The media plays an essential role in intensifying the psychological effects emaciating from disasters as they retell the stories because they give rise to the emotions. Disasters such as 9/11 terrorist attack and Hurricane Katrina disasters had psychological effects on both the survivors and society at large because they led to PTSD, anxiety, and depression on both adults and children.

9/11 Terrorist Attack 

Supporting evidence : “ The 9/11 attacks were a series of four coordinated attacks on the US by the Islamist terror group al-Qaeda” (BBC News, 2020). 

About 2977 deaths, 25,000 injuries, and significant long-term health consequences resulted from the attack.

“ She immediately thought about the 2,200 Verizon employees working in lower Manhattan, especially those located in the World Trade Center and in Verizon Wireless’s store there. Could they have been hurt? Her pace quickened, and she reached for her cell phone to let headquarters know she was on her way in” (Argenti, 2002). 

The New York Mayor took charge of rescue operations minutes after the first attack and his presence was felt aftermath as he attended the burials of individuals that had lost their lives.

The managers whose organizations were attacked engaged in effective communication with their employees, especially in coordinating how they would resume operations after the attack.

Supporting evidence: “ Overall, findings suggest that the 9/11 terrorists may have had significantly more mental health problems than previously assumed, and the leaders who planned 9/11 personally approved suicide attackers with prior histories of mental illness” (Lankford, 2017) 

The number of cases reported among individuals who were directly affected by the terrorist attacks were higher compared to the rest of the country. These include the employees whose work stations had their locations at World Trade Center and Pentagon.

Another group of people who registered a high number of terrorist attacks include the first responders that comprise of the rescue teams, cleaners, and individuals engaged in recovery process.

The rest of the society experienced anxiety attacks, which caused members of society to experience irrational fears.

Furthermore, the members of society lost their sense of security while in public domains, which had a significant impact on the social lives.

Males’ response to the incident was characterized with a lot of disengagement while females were more affected and used more emotional strategies to cope with the incident.

Supporting evidence : “Children  and adolescents are emotionally vulnerable to  their  experiences” (Stafford et al., 2014). 

Furthermore, the reaction of the children depended on emotional stability of their caregivers. For instance, majority of children within New York City experienced very severe post-traumatic stress.

Adolescents experienced mental health and psychological distress.

Parents’ are protective of their families and therefore the response of their children was dependent on the reaction of their caregivers.

Supporting evidence : “event-related media consumption predicts PTSD caseness and/or PTS after adjusting for other exposures” (Pfefferbaum et al., 2014). 

The media allowed victims to share their stories aimed at enhancing understanding about the occurrences.

However, the rest of the society acquired a negative impact because the awareness made them feel more anxious and scared of their lives.

The media also played an essential role in intensifying the psychological effects of Hurricane Katrina among the people because until date, the stories on the occurrences are still being retold.

Even though the victims might have forgotten about the occurrences, they get fresh memories that significantly influence them.

Hurricane Katrina Disaster 

Supporting Evidence : “In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall along the Gulf Coast, becoming infamous for the destruction it wrought to communities from Louisiana to Alabama. Most notably, it caused massive flooding in New Orleans and surrounding parishes by breaching the levee system” (Frank, 2011).

The pandemic affected New Orleans, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Georgia, Pennsylvania, Ontario, and New Jersey.

The incident led to at least 1,833 fatalities, several people injured, and significant destruction of property.

Supporting evidence : “The complete devastation of the communications infrastructure left responders without a reliable network to use for coordinating emergency response operations. Flooding blocked access to the police and fire dispatch centers in New Orleans; neither 911 service nor public safety radio communications functioned sufficiently” (The White House Archives, 2005).

Residents who were yet to evacuate from the affected areas were left stranded with no access to basic commodities like food and shelter.

Supporting evidence : “But despite the heightened attention to homeland security, the response to Katrina was a failure. The world watched as government responders seemed unable to offer basic protection from the ravages of nature” (Moynihan, 2009).

Government agencies were significantly criticized and termed as inefficient, thus leading to numerous death and delayed evacuation practices.

New Orleans City Mayor, Nagin was criticized for failing to execute the disaster management plan that involved deployment of school buses to aid in evacuation of people that could not leave alone before the hurricane hit the city.

Supporting Evidence : Much of this research focuses on the short-term implications and indicates that disaster survivors evidence a wide range of reactions, including symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as well as other, often co-morbid, conditions such as depression, anxiety, somatization, substance abuse, and physical illness (Rhodes et al., 2010). 

Other mental illnesses associated with the pandemic include depression and anxiety.

Moreover, such individuals will feel upset when they are reminded any memories about the past incidents.

Similarly, the people tend to become irritable and angry whenever they encounter gory images or floods in other areas since they trigger their past memories.

Supporting Evidence : “ Growing evidence suggests that the hurricane had both immediate and lasting adverse health and mental health consequences” (Rhodes et al., 2010). 

Children experienced the impact of Hurricane Katrina as they lost their personal belongings, got displaced, and some of them even suffered lacked basic needs.

Another factor that contributed to the psychological impact of the pandemic on the children is that majority of them had been separated from their family members.

Nevertheless, efforts made to restore order in the region played an essential role towards seeing that children restored their normal lives as schools were rebuild and linked up with their parents. Hence, the psychological effects of Hurricane Katrina were more intense among the adults unlike was the case among children.

Conclusion 

Disasters such as 9/11 and Hurricane Katrina resulted to some psychological effects on survivors and society causing PTSD, anxiety, and depression on both adults and children.

The 9/11 attack had some psychological symptoms after the 9/11 attack because it spread the new about the attack and shared the gory images.

Hurricane Katrina had significant psychological effects resulting in PTSD, anxiety, and depression.

Annotated Bibliography 

Davis, T. E., Grills-Taquechel, A. E., & Ollendick, T. H. (2010). The Psychological Impact From Hurricane Katrina: Effects of Displacement and Trauma Exposure on University Students.  Behavior Therapy ,  41 (3), 340–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2009.09.004 

The authors of the article conducted a study aimed at evaluating the psychological reaction of University student at New Orleans to Hurricane Katrina disaster. The 68 student involved in the study had been enrolled in the institution before the pandemic struck and were displaced after the disaster. The study aimed at assessing the psychological effects that the events had on them. The study also included students who had managed to relocate before the incident occurred. Psychological issues such as PTSD, anxiety, stress, and depression were common among the entire sample involved in the study. Nevertheless, it was revealed that students that were displaced experienced more symptoms of psychological conditions outlined above. Furthermore, individuals that were directly exposed to the pandemic experienced more depressive symptoms and also had posttraumatic symptoms. It is essential to note that the displaced student had to deal with a wide range of new challenges that helped to create new relationships. Hence, the student’s mental stability was disrupted by both the aftermath of the incident, exposure, and displacement. The article is useful in the final paper because it will help to demonstrate some factors that significantly influenced the psychological well-being of university students after Hurricane Katrina struck. Furthermore, the article confirms that indeed Hurricane Katrina had some associated psychological factors including PTSD, anxiety, stress, and depression, which affected the general wellness of affected individuals. 

Lankford, A. (2017). A Psychological Re-Examination of Mental Health Problems among the 9/11 Terrorists.  Studies in Conflict & Terrorism ,  41 (11), 875–898. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610x.2017.1348742 

In this article, the author studies the psychological impact of the 9/11 terrorist attack in the United States. The study reveals that more people are mentally affected by the incident than was earlier anticipated. Consequently, people exposed to the disaster either directly or through media coverage have some symptoms they can associate with the disaster several years after it occurred. Moreover, the study reveals a new twist to the incident since intelligence information depicts that the organizers of the pandemic ensured that they use suicide bombers that had a past history with mental illnesses. Spreading such information is deemed to have a positive impact on enhancing the security of the country by ensuring that individuals and organizations that fund terrorism will reconsider their decisions. Subsequently, there might be a reduced number of suicide bombers targeting to cause mass destruction. The article reveals that it is unlikely for a mentally healthy individual to be willing to engage in activities that have potential to cause harm to the rest of the society. Accordingly, the revelation reveals the evil among the organizers of such attacks, which might deny them the support they require when executing such practices. Therefore, the article has a psychological impact that has capability to harness security by minimizing terrorist activities. The article is relevant in the final paper because it shows that people that engage in man-made disasters also suffer from some psychological conditions. 

Navarro, J., Pulido, R., Berger, C., Arteaga, M., Osofsky, H. J., Martinez, M., Osofsky, J. D., & Hansel, T. C. (2014). Children’s disaster experiences and psychological symptoms: An international comparison between the Chilean earthquake and tsunami and Hurricane Katrina.  International Social Work ,  59 (4), 545–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872814537850 

The author of this article acknowledges the importance of understanding the psychological impact of disasters on children aimed at identifying effective recovery strategies among children. The research is based on the experiences acquired from Hurricane Katrina and Chilean Earthquake. The results of the study reveals that when disasters strike, majority of exposed children are affected and their mental-health is significantly affected. Moreover, the study reveals that children reaction towards disasters matches across different cultures and thus the recovery strategies will help to address these issues. Children exposed to Hurricane Katrina experienced posttraumatic stress and PTSD. Moreover, it was reported that the rate of aggression among children at school increases. Other symptoms that children experienced include irritability, lack of sleep, anhedonia, poor concentration, and restricted range effect. Moreover, the scholars report that even though the psychological effects were recorded from a man-made disaster, they can also be felt from natural disasters. The disasters lead to significant losses among children that include family members, homes, clothes, and toys that they are attached to which causes them great suffering. The article is essential in the final paper because it demonstrates the psychological impact of disasters among children and it will be possible to identify solutions that will help in the recovery process. 

Neria, Y., DiGrande, L., & Adams, B. G. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks: A review of the literature among highly exposed populations. American Psychologist, 66(6), 429–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024791 

The authors of this article acknowledges that the 9/11 terrorist attack had significant effect among the victims during and after the incident. PSTD is among the popular mental health issue that scholars interested with the pandemic focus their research on. The report demonstrates the evidence of PTSD among the people who had proximity with areas affected by the disaster in a span of 10 years. The research shows that first responders that comprised of the rescue team, cleaners, and recovery group had the highest number of people that demonstrated signs of PTSD. The research revealed that a decade after the disaster struck, individuals that were highly exposed to the calamity have a high burden of PTSD. Some of the factors that have played a significant role in enhancing the existence of the pandemic include loss of close family members, sociodemographic factors, lack of social support, and significant exposure to the disaster. The individuals experience signs such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. The article will be useful in the final paper because it helps to demonstrate that 9/11 survivors and people with close proximity to the disaster suffered some psychological effects. Furthermore, the article demonstrates the magnitude of the impact of the psychological effects of 9/11 terrorist attack as the victims experienced the symptoms a decade after the incident occurred.

Pfefferbaum, B., Newman, E., Nelson, S. D., Nitiéma, P., Pfefferbaum, R. L., & Rahman, A. (2014). Disaster Media Coverage and Psychological Outcomes: Descriptive Findings in the Extant Research.  Current Psychiatry Reports ,  16 (9). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-014-0464-x 

The article attempts to explain the impact of media coverage on disasters and the impact that such practices have on the members of the public. The authors acknowledge the role of the media in covering both man-made and natural disasters in the recent past, which compelled the attention of the scholars. The media has been recognized for its importance role in spreading the events arising from disasters. For instance, the author demonstrates that the coverage of Hurricane Katrina by the media did not only cause harm to the exposed individuals, but also to the rest of society as people raised concern about disaster management policies and infrastructures in the country. The coverage of such content demonstrates the vulnerability of people to disasters, which then triggers psychological reactions. Consequently, the coverage of disasters on media platforms causes PTSD, stress reactions, depression, negative emotions, anger, substance abuse, and complicated grief. Moreover, the scholars revealed that the statistics of people experiencing psychological symptoms and worth evaluating. Nevertheless, the scholars also argued that even though the existing evidence demonstrated a positive correlation between media coverage on disasters and psychological reactions, it could not be blamed for the persistent emotional effects of trauma among the victims. The article is relevant to the current study because it will reveal whether the media plays a role in causing psychological impact on individuals exposed to disasters. 

Pfefferbaum, B., Nitiéma, P., & Newman, E. (2021). A Critical Review of Effective Child Mass Trauma Interventions: What We Know and Do Not Know from the Evidence.  Behavioral Sciences ,  11 (2), 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11020025 

In this article, the authors acknowledge that children experiences psychological trauma after being exposed to disasters such as Hurricane Katrina and 9/11 terrorist attack. Children experience stress, anxiety, functional impairment, depression, and stress. Scholars have focused studies on evaluating possible intervention techniques that can help in enhancing the recovery process among children. The immediate reaction that these individuals demonstrate include behavioral changes and emotional distress. Nevertheless, the psychological symptoms that children depicts relies on a variety of factors. For instance, the aspects of trauma, which refers to type of trauma, the rate of injuries, and damages on infrastructures and properties incurred. Similarly, if the child has a past trauma history or exposed through loss of parents or close relative, the reaction to the incident is likely to more intense. Evaluating these factors is essential because it helps in developing interventions that befits each level of influence. Consequently, it becomes possible to address the emotional needs of children on time before it results into significant impact. The article is relevant to the final paper because it not only demonstrates the effects of disasters on children, but also suggests possible interventions. Consequently, the final paper will have a suggestion on what should be done to facilitate recovery of children exposed to disasters. 

Rousseau, C., Jamil, U., Bhui, K., & Boudjarane, M. (2013). Consequences of 9/11 and the war on terror on children’s and young adult’s mental health: A systematic review of the past 10 years. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 20(2), 173–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104513503354 

The authors of the article use a mixed systematic review to analyze the impact of 9/11 disaster among children growing up in North America. The focus is on the social lives that the children led after the pandemic struck the country. The results demonstrate that children and young adults grew up under the guise of fear whereby they lacked sense of safety, especially when they are in public domain. Nevertheless, the scholars revealed that the response among children towards the pandemic was largely influenced by the reaction of the adults within their families. For instance, children whose families exposed them to the disaster either through the media or were directly affected developed posttraumatic stress. Moreover, the study revealed that the reaction among children was unevenly spread as those from low-income families reported more psychological impacts compared to those from higher income families. Additionally, children born or growing up after the 9/11 disaster experienced discrimination as members of society significantly engaged in stereotyping, which created a negative social perception. Nonetheless, the government played an essential role in providing more community mental health services aimed at introducing coping mechanisms among children. The article is essential in the study because it helps to demonstrate how different children and adults experienced psychological impacts from the 9/11 disaster. Furthermore, the article demonstrates the efforts made aimed at minimizing the impact of psychological effects among children.

Watson, P. J., Brymer, M. J., & Bonanno, G. A. (2011). Postdisaster psychological intervention since 9/11. American Psychologist, 66(6), 482–494. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024806 

The 9/11 pandemic drew a lot of attention from government agencies and scholars who researched on the psychological impact it had on people due to the resulting from mass deaths. The author of the article acknowledges that different people react and heal from the psychological effects that disasters have on them differently. Some factors that compel people to react differently include attributional style, self-efficacy, social support, and biological attributes. Depending on the variations on these factors, an individual might easily fall into depression, experience anxiety, and have PTSD as a psychological reaction to a disaster. The authors of the article recommends that people who have past exposure to disasters should consistently undergo a screening process aimed at reviewing their psychological well-being. Furthermore, some emphasizes on the intervention measures that government agencies should have in place as a way of enhancing early response to the psychological needs among people should be implemented. Finally, the researchers have also emphasized on the need to have mental health services more accessible at community level to ensure that people access the services they so much need to facilitate their well-being. The article is essential for the research paper because it demonstrates that even though disasters have psychological effects that threatens the mental health of victims, it can also be resolved. Hence, the article will help to outline some of the intervention measures that should help dwell with psychological impacts emaciating from disasters.

References 

Argenti, P. (2002, December).  Crisis Communication: Lessons from 9/11 . Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2002/12/crisis-communication-lessons-from-911 

BBC News. (2020, September 11). US commemorates 19th anniversary of 9/11 terrorist attacks.  BBC News . https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-54123146 

Davis, T. E., Grills-Taquechel, A. E., & Ollendick, T. H. (2010). The Psychological Impact From Hurricane Katrina: Effects of Displacement and Trauma Exposure on University Students. Behavior Therapy , 41 (3), 340–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2009.09.004 

Frank, J. (2011).  The Impact of Hurricane Katrina on Gulf Coast Libraries and Their Disaster Planning . https://doi.org/10.31979/etd.wkbu-cu6k 

Lankford, A. (2017). A Psychological Re-Examination of Mental Health Problems among the 9/11 Terrorists. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism , 41 (11), 875–898. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610x.2017.1348742 

Moynihan, D. (2009).  The Response to Hurricane Katrina . https://irgc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Hurricane_Katrina_full_case_study_web.pdf 

Navarro, J., Pulido, R., Berger, C., Arteaga, M., Osofsky, H. J., Martinez, M., Osofsky, J. D., & Hansel, T. C. (2014). Children’s disaster experiences and psychological symptoms: An international comparison between the Chilean earthquake and tsunami and Hurricane Katrina. International Social Work , 59 (4), 545–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872814537850 

Neria, Y., DiGrande, L., & Adams, B. G. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks: A review of the literature among highly exposed populations. American Psychologist , 66 (6), 429–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024791 

Pfefferbaum, B., Newman, E., Nelson, S. D., Nitiéma, P., Pfefferbaum, R. L., & Rahman, A. (2014). Disaster Media Coverage and Psychological Outcomes: Descriptive Findings in the Extant Research. Current Psychiatry Reports , 16 (9). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-014-0464-x 

Pfefferbaum, B., Nitiéma, P., & Newman, E. (2021). A Critical Review of Effective Child Mass Trauma Interventions: What We Know and Do Not Know from the Evidence. Behavioral Sciences , 11 (2), 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11020025 

Rhodes, J., Chan, C., Paxson, C., Rouse, C. E., Waters, M., & Fussell, E. (2010). The impact of Hurricane Katrina on the mental and physical health of low-income parents in New Orleans.  American Journal of Orthopsychiatry ,  80 (2), 237–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01027.x 

Rousseau, C., Jamil, U., Bhui, K., & Boudjarane, M. (2013). Consequences of 9/11 and the war on terror on children’s and young adult’s mental health: A systematic review of the past 10 years. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 20 (2), 173–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104513503354 

Stafford, B., Schonfeld, D., Keselman, L., Ventevogel, P., & Stewart, C. (2014).  The Emotional Impact of Disaster on Children and Families . https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/disasters_dpac_PEDsModule9.pdf 

The White House Archives. (2005).  Hurricane Katrina: Lessons Learned - Chapter Four: A Week of Crisis (August 29 - September 5) . Georgewbush-Whitehouse.archives.gov. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/reports/katrina-lessons-learned/chapter4.html 

Watson, P. J., Brymer, M. J., & Bonanno, G. A. (2011). Postdisaster psychological intervention since 9/11. American Psychologist , 66 (6), 482–494. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024806