The concept of cultural relativism has its roots in the American cultural anthropology. This is comprised of two principal components, notably, the factual and the philosophical (Brown et al., 2008). The former is based on the notion that judgements regarding the world and those of value diverge extensively from one culture to another. The latter, on the other hand, entails the idea that the assessment of assertions about morality and the world is also dependent on culture. Specifically, the philosophical component of culture relativism postulates that there are no moral principles or truths that transcend culture. Therefore, culture is treated as an independent variable by the philosophical anthropology of cultural relativism. This is because cultures are discrete both in time and space. For instance, such aspects as the worldview, custom, social structure as well as art are dependent variables that are responsive to and governed by cultural variations. Ethnographic perspectives also vary. This is from the perspective of the culture in question, or from the observer's perspective (Morris et al., 1999). This gives rise to the emic and etic perspectives of culture relativism respectively. This paper will examine the American culture from an etic (outsiders) perspective. It will also examine African marriages from an emic (insider’s) perspective. In the former, it will highlight such issues as the American food, population characteristics, music, patriotism, views on nudity as well as politics. In the latter, the paper will explore the patriarchal nature of the African culture, the roles of men and women in marriage and the cultural preparations for these roles. Cultural relativism plays an important role in explaining the ideas and practices of other cultures while considering the guiding cultural structures to avoid sanctioning those ideas and practices.
Cultural relativism and etic and emic perspectives
Proponents of cultural relativism argue that the concept has a benignant and obligatory influence on anthropological practice and theory. Its guiding principle is that the basis of judgement is experience while each person interprets experience based on his or her enculturation (Morris et al., 2008). In this regard, those who hold the belief that fixed values exist are likely to change this perspective when they interact with different cultures. This is because they are likely to encounter materials and practices in other cultures that will need them to rethink and change their positions. One prominent example, in this case, is individual views on moral standards. The two critical questions about moral standards are; Do absolute moral standards exist? And is the effectiveness of moral standards determined by the extent to which they concur with the orientations of a given group of people at a particular period in their history?
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Ethnography, on the other hand, plays a crucial role in gathering anthropological data. Through in-depth studies of people’s everyday lives and practices, ethnographers produce different types of data. This data produces different forms of ethnographic descriptions, which ultimately vary depending on the perspective ( Varjas et al., 2005). When the insider (emic) perspective is used, beliefs and behaviours are described in terms that have meaning to the people that make up the particular culture. The emic perspective entails how the people categorize and perceive their experiences and culture, how they explain and imagine things and why they believe they do what they do. In a bid to discover emic perspectives, ethnographers have to observe the people, talk to them as well as take part in their daily activities. Emic perspectives are vital for anthropologists because they help them in obtaining a detailed understanding of particular peoples’ culture and avoiding the interpretation of other cultures based on their cultural beliefs (Morris et al., 2008).
Etic perspectives comprise the explanations regarding behavior that are made by outside observers but in ways that bear meaning to the observers. Anthropologists are likely to obtain etic descriptions from the conversations they hold with a particular anthropological community. Often, these outsider explanations are based on science and are informed by political, historical and economic studies, as well as other forms of research. Thus, the etic approach reckons that the members of a particular culture are not likely to perceive the things they do as being unusual or noteworthy. They are also unlikely to stand back and look at their behavior objectively or from a different perspective ( Varjas et al., 2005).
The American culture from an etic perspective
America is undoubtedly the most admired and advanced country in the world. Nevertheless, a significant portion of what America has achieved is owed to the efforts of people of diverse cultural backgrounds. This is due to such aspects as slavery, colonization and immigration. This raises the question of what is distinctly American. For instance, is there a delicacy that is distinctively American? While it would be unfair to purport that the American culture lacks a dish that is truly American, a portion of what makes America what it is today cannot necessarily be solely attributed to an American citizen. Another important component of the American culture is its emphasis on self-confidence (Gimlin, 2002). Subsequently, it is common for a typical American to come out as being arrogant or loud. While this is a stereotype, these attributes might be held subtly by a majority of American citizens. Nevertheless, the caring, friendliness, openness and welcoming nature of the general populace cannot be overstated.
The portrayal of Americans in the media, as well as the popular culture, is that of dreamers, achievers and optimists. A typical America believes that he or she can achieve anything through perseverance and hard work. This is not hard to believe given that the majority of the innovations that power different sectors of economies across the globe are from America. Notably, the American culture celebrates ideas and innovations and put structures in place to support them for the benefit of the American people as well as the entire world (Segal, 2004). The American culture is also characterized by an unprecedented amount of choices for various needs. It is mind-blowing to have so many alternatives to choose from for things as transportation, hospitality, housing, education and entertainment amongst others. Despite this, other aspects appear rather strange. For instance, the consumption of such products as sugar, cereals, milk, eggs, cheese, sandwiches and bacon is staggering. In particular, the American culture is characterized by the use of sugar and cheese in a wide variety of dishes.
Another significant aspect of the American culture is its domination and pioneering role in the world of music. For instance, jazz and blues genres of music originated from America. These genres contributed significantly to the emergence of pop, hip-hop, rock as well as rap. This underscores the importance of America musically. Americans are also conspicuously patriotic, which is an important ingredient for nation-building. However, this patriotism seems to be overdone despite its normalcy amongst the American citizens. For instance, there is an overemphasis on the pledge of allegiance, and the American flag can be found everywhere. Another interesting aspect of the culture is the peoples' perception of nudity. In America, nudity is inherently viewed sexually. In this regard, being nude in public is interpreted to be a sexual signal. This is as opposed to other parts of the world where being nude as well as partially nude is a normal occurrence for instance in beaches, swimming pool or even as part of day-to-day life. The latter is the case amongst the indigenous cultures of the world. Undeniably, America is filled with many things that make it great. However, the American culture takes a lot of these things for granted. For example, some people take the freedoms as well as the American way of life for granted. Some don’t realize how rare this is in other parts of the world. In light of this, it is not clear why Americans felt that they ought to make the nation great again while it has always been great.
The African marriage from an emic perspective
African societies are patriarchal. In this system, the dominant men exercise control over women, children as well other marginalized and weaker individuals. This social control is visible in all aspects and institutions of the society, including marriages (Maisiri, 2016). The women, on the other hand, are socialized to accept the status quo that men are superior to them. Likewise, they are taught to believe that men deserve their unquestioning and dedicated service. Thus, the headship of a man in a family is viewed to be more important compared to the well-being of the woman, as well as such issues as fairness. Opposition to these roles is therefore viewed as an opposition to the African culture and its structures. This is different to other parts of the world where equality in marriage is vital.
The African culture has specific views regarding submission in marriage and headship. This is because men and women have well-defined obligations and roles that are exclusive and specific to their respective genders (Maisiri, 2016). As a result, clear boundaries exist between male and female tasks and roles. Transgressing these boundaries is considered a taboo and individuals who break these rules are bound to face serious consequences. To ensure that these norms are followed, African girls and boys are socialized in the gender roles that are assigned to them. This is achieved through such practices as circumcision and other forms of initiation. For example, girls are exposed to motherly duties while the boys are taught how to herd livestock and provide for and protect their families when they are old enough.
Men in African marriages are the custodians of both lineage and land. Therefore, on marriage, the woman is expected to adopt her husband's surname, in which case she belongs to the man's as opposed to her biological family (Maisiri, 2016). Also, the man heads the family, including the wife, and is expected to instil discipline. In several African cultures, a man is allowed to beat his wife, in which case the act is seen as an advancement of his role. This is questionable in other cultures, where this is viewed as an act of gender violence. Conversely, women are viewed as home keepers, whose responsibilities and roles are confined to the kitchen.
References
Brown, M. F., Darnell, R., Eriksen, T. H., Hayden, R. M., Moore, H. L., Myers, F., ... & Brown, M. F. (2008). Cultural Relativism 2.0. Current Anthropology , 49 (3), 363-383.
Gimlin, D. (2002). Body work: Beauty and self-image in American culture . Univ of California Press.
Maisiri, O. (2016). Male headship and female submission in marriage among African Christians: a pastoral perspective (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pretoria).
Morris, M. W., Leung, K., Ames, D., & Lickel, B. (1999). Views from inside and outside: Integrating emic and etic insights about culture and justice judgment. Academy of management review , 24 (4), 781-796.
Segal, A. (2004). Is America losing its edge? Innovation in a globalized world. Foreign Affairs , 2-8.
Varjas, K., Nastasi, B. K., Moore, R. B., & Jayasena, A. (2005). Using ethnographic methods for development of culture-specific interventions. Journal of School Psychology , 43 (3), 241-258.
