The study of modern philosophy elicits different reactions in relation to understanding of contextual paradigms. Scruton (2012) observed that the notion about the existence of central questions of philosophy is baseless and expressed reservations about the utility of content that passes as research in modern philosophy. According to Scruton (2012), the need to draw far more widely in interpretation of paradigms of modern philosophy is imperative. The assertions are based on evidence of the irreversible change on the subject of modern philosophy inspired by emerging philosophers. One such aspect is the need to convey modern philosophy in a language comprehensible to the common reader. Scruton (2012) further argues that adoption of thee technocratic style of modern philosophy, particularly by Anglo-American Universities, risks killing all interest in the subject, thus delinking it from its purpose of advancing humane education. Philosophy is a realm of abstract ideas and the problems of the mind it presents can be explained through a language of the heart if respective philosophers can rediscover the simplicity of their modern counterparts. In this light, it is imperative to examine some of works of philosophy in the context of modernity to recognize and appreciate implications on understanding of the field.
By any standards, modern philosophers offer rebuttals to some of the discourses advanced by their predecessors. The objective is to create clarity in a realm that has for long been obscured in complexities of language that rendered it a preserve of a few. One such approach is evident in the enquiries Hume’s philosophical ideas about human understanding and the principles of morals, which readers are advised to approach with caution. One argument advanced in criticism of Hume’s philosophical writings is if fullness with matter, particularly in relation to treatise, because the author says so many things in different ways and connexions, and significant indifference to what they say. However, there is a consensus among modern philosophers about the lack of certainty in concluding whether Hume taught or did not teach any particular doctrine. While the language used by modern philosophers may be intended to resonate with their audience, such is not a privilege philosopher are often accorded. In most circumstances, philosophers, including modern ones, envision phenomena in ways that are unique to them as individuals. This is reflected in their complex presentation of thoughts and ideas. Therefore, adoption of a language that is understood by all, including laymen, may be detrimental in that it limits the expansive thinking through which philosophical ideas are generated.
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However, a notable aspect of modern philosophy is that it does not deviate from use of abstraction. Perhaps the only difference is that the developments in modern philosophy are paralleled by the enlightenment of society that makes interpretation and understanding of philosophical discourses easy. For instance, the Philosophical Writings of Descartes (2005), attempts are made to expound on some of the philosophical paradigms. Descartes observed that most individuals recognize with surprise that they have held significant amounts of falsehoods as truths throughout their childhood, courtesy of the doubtful nature of the whole edifice based on them. Such realizations, in most circumstances, precipitate the need to demolish one’s understanding of the world and phenomena in it, and to start all over again from the very foundations. This is important for establishment of discourses in sciences that would last for long. One can argue that modern philosophy is founded on a similar precipice. The realization that some of the theories advanced by predecessors have little application in modern contexts, modern philosophers thought it prudent to deconstruct establishments of such philosophies by adopting alternate explanations of how they interact with the phenomena in question.
Such is the case in the criticism of Descartes meditations on First Philosophy that encompasses: what can be called into doubt; the nature of the human mind and how it is better known than the body, the existence of God; truth and falsity; the essence of material things; and the existence of material things and the real distinction between mind and body. It is important to note that Descartes wrote mainly in Latin, and their philosophical thoughts were shaped by events of the time. Such contexts are non-existent in modernity where divergent views about phenomena have emerged. Pre-modern philosophy was marked by influences of fledging monarchies and heavy rule of the church. The renaissance was marked by vigorous and interesting times as the paradigm shift in most aspects of society changed the manner phenomena was perceived. Take for instance Descartes third meditation on the existence of God. In pre-modern philosophical era, questioning the existence of God would have drawn substantial wrath from the church and rebuke from society. However, the advent of modernity saw the beginning in accommodation of divergent views. Religious and other thinkers were freed from the central authority of the church, allowing them to advance their individual religious philosophies that were either very reasonable, or outlandish. Modern philosophy is marked by a renaissance in free thought, which highlights the importance of Descartes first meditation on what can be called into doubt.
Descartes first meditation is very important towards the understanding of modern philosophy. It is important to reiterate that the era is marked by the onset of decline in the rule of the church, which reincarnated the the intellectual spirit that saw the ancient Greeks questioning mythology and asking deep questions. The era was depicted by intellectual and emotional growth in Europe, giving rise to modern philosophers whose ideologies of philosophy were inspired by science, rejection of religious teachings, and on the other hand, its defense based on new teachings. It was a complete reincarnation, not of just philosophy, but also of the truths that were, for long forgotten, as the society fed on teachings that are attributed to falsehoods. The period also saw the revival of epistemology, in relation to importance or lack of it of using empirical data as source of knowledge in science.
One can argue that the most notable aspect of modern philosophy was its drive to focus on humanism. The paradigm shift was definite from focusing on religious factors such as the existence of God and the afterlife and activities of saints and historical biblical heroes, to focusing on human beings and their wellness, here and now. Modern philosophers including René Descartes, George Berkeley, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant sought to advance their perspective to life through criticism of established philosophical foundations as a way of developing new meaning that justified new thoughts and ideas. The approach is evident through the writings of these modern philosophers.
For instance, George Berkeley advocated for a paradigm shift in the theory of vision through their New Theory of Vision. In reality, the theory of vision has a literal meaning rather than a philosophical one. It addressed the science behind the way people are able to see using the eyes. The explanations provided by George Berkeley (2009) cover diverse phenomena, but all are intended to justify their theory of how the human eye is able to perceive. One can argue that Berkeley’s New Theory of Vision had significant implication in the development of the modern field of visualization. In the same vein, David Hume (2005) questions the philosophical foundations of human understanding and associated principles of morals. It is important to note that morality holds a central role in both the medieval and modern contemporary societies. However, what constitutes morals is highly subjective as there are no written rules that make it definitive. One can argue that morals are defined by the societal context individuals find themselves in, and in Hume’s situation, they needed to redefine human understanding of morality to reflect the prevailing circumstances, social, economic, religious, and political.
Immanuel Kant, in their book, Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics , adopts a similar inquisitive approach by asking pertinent questions about previous works of metaphysics and the theory of knowledge. Kant (2004) adopts an approach that is characteristic of modern philosophers, rebuilding philosophy from the ground up. In this regard, the works of modern philosophers changed the realm permanently. Kant propounded their criticism of previous writings in metaphysics in their own work, Critique of Pure Reason , and summarized it in Prolegomena. These works comprehensively responded to early modern philosophy on the subjects and set the foundation for subsequent work. Descartes is another modern philosopher whose critical approach led to influential new philosophies that change perceptions towards human knowledge and morality. In their three volumes of philosophical writings, Descartes addresses philosophical foundations on different subjects. Notable are writings on the twenty-one rules on the direction of the mind, principles of philosophy, description of the human body, the passions of the soul. The criticism of established philosophical foundations on these subjects led to new ideas that were embraced for the betterment of humanity.
Modern philosophy is a depiction of the transitive nature of humanity. Respective philosophers during this era recognized the inconvenience and falsehoods of established philosophical foundations and not only criticized them, but also embarked on a journey to develop new ones for the betterment of humanity. Therefore, modern philosophy resonates with the modern society context, which is linked to the aristocracy that developed following the renaissance. Humanity continues to evolve, implying the need for new philosophical ideas is imperative. The conclusion that can be drawn from the observation is that like humanity, philosophy is constantly evolving and the two are dependent. Therefore, the possibility of new philosophical ideologies as humanity continues to evolve cannot be rule out.
References
Berkeley, G. (2008). Berkeley: Philosophical Writings . Cambridge University Press.
Descartes, R. (1984). The philosophical writings of Descartes: Volume 3, the correspondence (Vol. 3). Cambridge University Press.
Hume, D., & BIGGE, S. L. A. S. (1902). Enquiries Concerning the Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals... Edited... by LA Selby-Bigge.. . Clarendon Press.
Kant, I. (2004). Immanuel Kant: Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics: That Will Be Able to Come Forward as Science: With Selections from the Critique of Pure Reason . Cambridge University Press.
Scruton, R. (2012). Modern philosophy: An introduction and survey . A&C Black.
